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COLUMBUS BEFORE) ISABELLA. 

(From Group of Statuary in State Capitol at Sacramento, presented to State of 
California by D. 0. Mills.) 

























































/ 


CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES OF SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 


HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED' STATES. 



COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION 

OF THE 

STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 



SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA. 

Printed at the State Printing Office. 









Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by the 

STATE OF CALIFORNIA, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress , at Washington. 

l 


PREFACE. 


In this book it has been the aim to emphasize the political and social 
aspects of national life rather than to enlarge upon its wars. Much 
work for the pupil in connection with the study of the narrative has 
been suggested. It is largely comprised in the models of abstracts, or 
outlines, introduced at the head of chapters and the blank forms of 
review given at the end of thehi. The teacher must judge in each case 
to what extent the work so suggested can be performed, but it is earn¬ 
estly recommended that enough be done to give the pupil facility in the 
use of these methods of study. 

The chapters on the History of California will be recognized as a 
necessity of this publication. The space given to an account of meas¬ 
ures in behalf of Public Education will be remarked as a new feature, 
and its uniform approval by the excellent and able teachers to whom 
it has been submitted for advice and criticism, gives assurance that it 
will be cordially welcomed. Indeed, whatever merit the features pecu¬ 
liar to this book may have, is largely due to the interest taken in it by 
the many eminent men and women who have been consulted in its 
preparation, and whose services and suggestions are here gratefully 
acknowledged. 

Especial mention should be made of the opportunity to consult the 
admirable manuscript charts prepared by Mr. S. A. Espy and used by 
him in his school at Alleghany City, Pennsylvania, which were kindly 
forwarded to the Board for its use. 

If the study of this work shall give the youth of the state a deeper 
interest in the welfare of their country, and contribute in some degree 
to establish its permanence through their love for it, its purpose will be 
well attained. 


CONTENTS. 


I. COLONIAL PERIOD. 

PAGE. 

Chapter I.— Introduction .7 

Chapter II.— Columbus and his Voyage .12 

Chapter 111.— The People of the New Land .16 

Chapter IV.— Later Discoveries .20 

1. Spain. 

2. France. 

3. England. 

4. Portugal. 

Chapter V. — Beginning of Settlement .29 

1. France. 

2. Spain. 

3. England. 

Chapter VI.— Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay .36 

1. Plymouth. 

2. Massachusetts Bay. 

Chapter VII.— Other New England Colonies .43 

1. Rhode Island. 

2. Connecticut. 

3. New Hampshire. 

Chapter VIII.— New England. . . ..47 

Chapter IX.— Virginia and Maryland .56 

1. Virginia. 

2. Maryland. 

Chapter X.— Southern Colonies .63 

1. North Carolina. 

2. South Carolina. 

3. Georgia. 

4. The Southern Group. 

Chapter XI.— Middle Colonies . 71 

1. New York. 

2. New Jersey. 

3. Pennsylvania. 

4. Delaware. 

Chapter ~XlL^The Thirteen Colonies in 1750 . 81 

Chapter XIII.—Canada and Louisiana . 91 

1. French Exploration of the Interior. 

2. Wars between French and English. 

3. Growth of New France to 1750. 
















CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 


Chapter XIV .—The Struggle for the Interior .. 98 

Chapter X.V.—The Birth of the Nation . Ill 

H. TRANSITION TO NATIONAL LIFE. 

Chapter XVI. — War for Independence .130 


1. First Hostilities. 

2. Invasion of Canada. 

3. State Governments. 

4. Along the Coast. 

5. Independence. 

6. Washington’s Campaigns. 

7. Burgoyne’s Defeat and the French Alliance. 

8. On the Frontier. 

U. Naval Affairs. 

10. Arnold’s Treason. 

11. War in the South. 

12. The Last Campaign. 

13. The Close of the War. 

Chapter XVII.— The Formation of a National Government .179 

mnSrATIONAL LIFE WITH A DIVIDED LABOR SYSTEM. 

Chapter XVI11.— The United States Government Established. . . . 190 

1. Work of the First Congress. 

2. The President and the Country. 

3. The Indians. 

4. Excise and the Whisky Insurrection. 

5. United States Bank. 

6. Foreign Affairs and Political Parties. 

7. Immigration and Western Development. 

8. Washington Retires. 


Chapter XIX. —Government by the Federalists .206 

1. The New Administration. 

2. “Adams and Liberty.” 

3. Downfall of the Federalists. 

Chapter XX.— New Ideas and a New Party .211 

Chapter XXI.— Young America and the War of 1812 .219 

1. Beginning of Hostilities. 

2. War of 1812. 

Chapter XXII.— North and South set a Dividing Line .233 

'^Chapter XXIII. —A Protective Tariff and New Political Parties. . . 240 
Chapter ~KX1N.—Jackson and the People .246 

1. Political Affairs. 

2. Domestic Affairs. 

Chapter XXV. —Speculation and Panic .259 

Chapter XXVI.—“ Tippecanoe and Tyler , too.” .264 













6 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Chapter XXVII .—Texas and Mexico . 272 

Chapter XXVIII —El Dorado , the Land of Gold . 280 

Chapter XXIX. — The Struggle for Kansas, and a New Party. . . . 288 

Chapter XXX .—From the Dred Scott Decision to Secession . 296 

Chapter XXXI. — War of Secession .303 


1. Beginning of War. 

2. Around Washington and Richmond. 

3. The War in the West. 

4. Along the Coast. 

5. Around Vicksburg. 

6. Around Chattanooga. 

7. Sherman’s Advance into Georgia. 

8. Final Campaign in Virginia. 

9. Finances of the War. 

10. The Final Tragedy. 

IV. NATIONAL LIFE WITH A UNITED LABOR SYSTEM. 


Chapter XXXII .—The Constitution Amended .337 

Chapter XXXIII— The Nation One . 343 

Chapter XXXIV .—The Beginning of a New Age .353 

Chapter XXXV .—Education and Science . 367 


Chapter XXXVI .—Settlement of California .378 

1. Exploration and Early Settlement. 

2. Under Mexican Rule. 

3. American Conquest. 

Chapter XXXVII .—Our State .388 


LIST OF MAPS. 

• BETWEEN PAGES. 

1. Explorations and Discoveries .16-17 

2. French and English Territory 1750 .* . . . . 96-97 

3. Territory of 1783 . 192-193 

4. United States in 1830 . 256-257 

5. Areas of Secession . 304-305 

6. Territorial Map of 1876 . 352-353 


APPENDIX. 


PAGE. 

1. Explanation of Terms . 400 

2. Pronunciations .407 

3. Books of Reference .409 

4. Declaration of Independence .412 

5. Constitution of United States .415 

6. General Index .426 




























A HISTORY 


OF 

THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

For Explanation.—Celtic; crusades; pagans; Mohammedans; lore; 
Jaffa; Constantine; de Medici; astrolabe; Hercules; Aristotle; Alex¬ 
ander; Oriental; Venetian; blazoned; state; turquoises; cloth of gold; 
ermine; sable; Khan. 

To be Pronounced.—Teu-tSiPic; Xr'yan; Eu-ro-pe / an; Elbe(elb); 
Ptolemy (tol'e-my); Ca/diz; Mo-harrPme-dans; Christendom (krls'n- 
dum); Asia (a'she-a); Ganges (gan'jez); Ar'is-tot-le; Cbn'stan'tine; 
Bos'po-rus; Medici (med'e-chee); as'tro-labe; Khan; Cipango (se- 
pang'o); Cam-ba-lu'; Cath-ay'. 

1. We are to study the history of the people living in 
the country now known as the United States of America. 
Travel and the study of maps give a knowledge of this land 
and its people as they now are. But not even the land has 
always been what we see at the present time. Its mount¬ 
ains, rivers, and plains, which seem to us unchanging, 
had their beginning and gradual growth. In like manner 
the character and condition of the inhabitants have also 
changed. Only 400 years ago there was not one white 
man living in all America. How the part of America 
which is now the territory of the United States has been 
settled by white men; how cities have been built and the 
country brought under cultivation; how governments have 
been established and maintained, we are now to learn. 
Nature made this land beautiful and rich, and our fore¬ 
fathers by establishing liberty and justice have left to us 
and to all the world a noble record for study and imitation. 



8 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


2. Beginning of United States History. —Of the whole 
present population of the United States about thirteen per 
cent were born in foreign countries, mostly in Europe. 
The forefathers of all the white people born in this coun¬ 
try came also froip Europe. Therefore the history of the 
United States takes its beginning from that of Europe. 
England, of all European countries, has had the greatest 
influence upon the United States. From England came 
the great majority of the first settlers, the language that 
we use, our common law, and forms of government. 

3. [Early England.—The people of England belong to what is called 
the Teutonic race, one member of a great family known as the Aryan 
or Indo-European. Under the names of Angles and Saxons, tribes of 
warriors sailed from the country around the mouth of the river Elbe 
across the North Sea to the island of Britain; and between the years 
450 and 600 they gradually conquered the land, driving the Celtic in¬ 
habitants into the mountains of Wales and Scotland. The Angles and 
Saxons were pagans when they came into Britain. Missionaries sent 
from Rome introduced Christianity. The southern part of the island 
received the name of England, which means the land of the Angles. 
The English lived for a time under separate kingdoms, but these were 
united in 827. The king did not have all power. He was surrounded 
by a body of advisers, a council of the great and wise men, which after¬ 
wards grew to be the English Parliament (42).] 

4. The Dark Ages. —This name is sometimes given to 
the time from the end of the fifth century to the beginning 
of the fifteenth, because in that time the people of Europe 
made but little progress in knowledge and civilization and 
forgot a great deal of the learning of the ancient Greeks 
and Romans. Before the fifteenth century no one in Europe 
knew anything about Southern Africa, Australia, or Amer¬ 
ica. Ships were small and hardly able to endure the storms 
of ocean. Only the boldest sailors dared trust themselves 
out of sight of land. Many learned men had thought of 
the earth as a globe, but the common people all believed it 
to he flat. 

5. [End of the Dark Ages and the Revival of Ancient Learning.— 

“According to Ptolemy, the best recognized authority, whose geography 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


had stood the test of thirteen hundred years, the then known world 
was a strip of some seventy degrees wide, mostly north of the equator, 
with Cadiz on the west, and farthest India, or Cathay, on the east, 
lying between the frozen and burning zones, both impassable by man. 
The inhabitants, as far as known in Europe, were Christians and 
Mohammedans, the one sect about half the age of.the other. Christen¬ 
dom, the elder, that once held considerable portions of Asia and 
Africa, had been driven back inch by inch, in spite of the Crusades, 
even from the Holy Land, the place of its birth, up into the north¬ 
west corner of Europe; and both in lands and people was outnum¬ 
bered six to one by the followers of Mohammed. For seven hundred 
years the fairest provinces of Spain acknowledged the sway of the 
Moors, and the Mediterranean from Jaffa to the Gates of Hercules 
(Straits of Gibraltar), was under their control. . . . India beyond the 
Ganges, from the days of Moses, Alexander, and Aristotle . . . was 
deemed the land of promise, the abode of luxury, the source of wealth, 
and the home of the spices; but the routes of commerce thither . . . 
were one by one being closed to the Christians. . . . Finally, in 1453, 
Constantinople, the Christian city of Constantine, fell into the hands of 
the Turks, and with it the commerce of the Black Sea and the Bosporus, 
the last of the old trading routes from the East to the West. . . . The 
learned Christians of Constantinople, with nothing but-their heads and 
their books, fled in exile into Italy, and became its schoolmasters. At 
once began there the revival of learning , which soon extended through¬ 
out the West. The Medici family of Italy at Venice and Florence wel¬ 
comed these learned Greeks, and bought their precious manuscripts of 
ancient lore. ... On the Rhine the young printing press was just giv¬ 
ing forth its first sheets. (See Lesson 115, Second Reader.) The com¬ 
pass and the astrolabe, recent inventions, began now to give confidence 
to mariners, and teach them that, though the old paths of trade over¬ 
land were closed, they might venture on new ones over sea. 

The manuscript travels of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville had 
found their way into the hands of thinking men. . . . Soon after the 
date of the fall of Constantinople, Italy and Portugal had reached that 
turn for adventure and enterprise which spread like wildfire through¬ 
out the other states of Europe, and caused the entire revolution in the 
commerce of the world.”— Stevens.] 

6. [Marco Polo, the Venetian wanderer, and first European to visit 
China, told of the rich realm ruled over by the Great Khan. His 
provinces covered southern and eastern Asia, including the great island 
of Cipango—Japan. “At the city of Cambalu (now Peking), on the 
northeast of Cathay, where the Khan resided for three winter months, 
his palace was of marble with a roof of gold, so blazoned in many colors 
that nothing but gold and imagery met the eye. ... In another city, 
the Khan made his residence for three of the summer months, and 



10 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


there also was ‘ a marvelous palace of marble and other stones ’ in an 
inclosure of sixteen miles. So large was the banquet hall of this royal 
residence, that the Khan’s table in the center was eighty yards high. 
. . . The Khan’s army was almost like the sands of the sea for num¬ 
bers, and so magnificent was the state of its many generals that they 
sat in chairs of solid silver. ... In one province a mountain of tur¬ 
quoises pierced the clouds; in a valley of another nestled a lake where 
pearls were so plentiful that had there been freedom to gather them, 
pearls would have been so common as to be of little worth. There 
were many mines of silver, many rivers whose beds were spangled with 
gold. The beasts and birds were various and wonderful. . . . Spices 
grew everywhere; and of fruit there were nuts as large as a child’s head, 
filled with a delicious milk, pears that weighed ten pounds, peaches two 
pounds each. . . . The people of this favored region clothed them¬ 
selves in cloth of gold, in silks, in lawns, and cambrics of the finest 
fabric, in furs of ermine and of sable.”— Bryant .] 

7. Value of Oriental Trade.—In the middle of the fif¬ 
teenth century the rising nations of Western Europe were 
all eager to gain control of oriental trade. A nation’s wealth 
was then counted in the gold, silver, jewels, silks, and fine 
robes of the sovereign and his court. Palaces for the nobles 
were grand things; but nobody thought of comfortable 
homes for laborers. A spice island was a far greater prize 
than a valley that would yield wheat. All riches were to 
be sought for in the distant East. 

Questions.— Where is the Elbe ? Name the divisions of Great Britain. 
What is a mariner's compass? Where is the Holy Land ? In what year did 
the 5th century begin? The 15th? Where is Jaffa located? (Jaffa is an¬ 
cient Joppa.) Gibraltar? Cadiz? Farthest India? Constantinople? The 
Black Sea? The Bosporus? The Rhine? About how old was Christianity at 
this time? Mohammedanism? 


OUTLINE, OR ABSTRACT. 

[To the Pupil .—The outline of five paragraphs given below is designed 
to furnish a suggestion , or model , for work to be done in preparing a lesson 
for recitation. It will be found helpful to make a similar outline , before 
coming into class, of each paragraph to be recited .] 

1. U. S. History— -land and people. Land— not unchanging, has its 
growth. People— Studied in settlements, growth of cities, establishment 

7. Name the nations of Western Europe. 





INTRODUCTION. 


11 


of governments. Land —rich by nature; liberty and justice established 
by forefathers; noble record. 

2. Thirteen per cent present population born in Europe; forefath¬ 
ers of all native whites, also; therefore history begins in Europe. En¬ 
gland influences most; gave majority of first settlers, our language, 
law, form of government. 

3. English— of Teutonic race, Aryan family; forefathers —Angles and 
Saxons, pagans, from mouth of Elbe; conquered England 450 A. D. 
to 650 A. D.; drove out Celts. Missionaries; Christianity introduced. 
England means —land of the Angles; consisted of five kingdoms, united 
827 A. D.; government —king and body of advisers. 

4. Dark Ages—end ol 5th to beginning of 15th century; little prog¬ 
ress ; ancient learning neglected; no knowledge of South Africa, Aus¬ 
tralia, America; ships small and weak; seldom sailed out of sight of 
land; earth generally thought to be flat. 

5. Ptolemy’s Geography standard for 1300 years; taught— world a 
strip E. and W. 70° wide, between Cadiz and farthest India; N. and S. 
between impassable frozen and burning zones. Inhabitants known to 
Europe —Christians and Mohammedans; Mohammedanism half as old 
as Christianity, followers six times as numerous, possessions six times 
as great. Jaffa to Gibraltar 700 years under the Moors (Mohamme¬ 
dans) ; Christians cut off from the finest lands of Asia; Constantinople 
and the trading routes to the East fall to the Turks; Christians flee to 
Italy; learning revives there; printing press on the Rhine; inventions 
increase; sea routes thought of in place of land routes closed; writings 
of travelers quicken thought; Italy and Portugal begin enterprises; 
commerce revolutionized. 

[To the Teacher. —Should the making of abstracts be found at first 
burdensome to the pupils, separate single paragraphs may be given to 
each of them. The practice of making abstracts, however, is so great 
an aid to mastery of the narrative, and the ability to give, in outline, the 
substance of any statement, either written or oral, is so valuable, that, 
to some extent the exercise should be a part of every lesson; for though 
the early efforts of the pupil may yield unsatisfactory results, persever¬ 
ance in them will in the end gladden both pupil and teacher by the 
power awakened and the facility given in mastering the text. “It is 
the first step that costs.”] 


12 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER FI. 

1453-1493. 

Columbus and His Voyage. 

For Explanation.— Oriental; successively; admiral: viceroy; San 
Salvador; pawn. 

To be Pronounced.— Da Ga/ma; Pavia (pa-vee / a); Cas-tile'; Palos; 
Ba-ha/ma; Hayti (ha/te); Az'ores; Gen / o-a. 

8. To find a sea-road to the Indies was the problem of 
the age (1450-1493). All the royal power of Portugal was 
put forth in pushing voyages further and further south¬ 
ward, with the plan of sailing around Africa. This was 
finally accomplished by a fleet in charge of Vasco da Gama 
in 1498. Before this date, however, a humble Italian navi¬ 
gator had formed the plan of reaching the East by sailing 
west. 


9. This navigator was Christopher Columbus, born in Genoa, Italy, 
about 1435. He received at the University of Pavia some instruction 
in geometry, geography, astronomy, and navigation; but from the 
age of fourteen for many years the sea was his home. In the wild life 
of a sailor at that time, he met with many adventures, and showed 
himself strong and brave. He lived several years in Portugal, marry¬ 
ing a Portuguese woman. He thus became acquainted with all that 
the Portuguese had done in exploring the Atlantic, and all that they 
were attempting to do to reach India. 

10. Columbus concluded, from the study of modern and 
ancient geographers and from the reports of travelers and 
seamen, that Europe and Asia covered at least two thirds 
of the distance around the earth, and that therefore India 
might be reached by an easy voyage westward across the 
Atlantic over the remaining third. He underestimated 
the size of the earth, and did not know that a whole con¬ 
tinent and another ocean kept the waves of the Atlantic 
from the shore of Asia. His conclusion having once been 
formed, his faith never weakened. He was a deeply relig- 


COLUMBUS AND HIS VOYAGE. 


13 


ious man, and believed that he was the messenger of heav¬ 
en appointed to carry the gospel to benighted lands. 

11. Money was needed to buy an ocean ship and to hire 
sailors to cross the Atlantic; Columbus had none. He 
applied successively to King John II. of Portugal, to his 
native city, Genoa, and to Ferdinand and Isabella, the sov¬ 
ereigns of Castile and Arragon, the founders of the modern 
kingdom of Spain. Years and years he waited, argued, and 
pleaded at the Spanish Court. He had just received as¬ 
surances of help from Portugal, and an encouraging letter 
from England, where his brother, Bartholomew Columbus, 
had presented his plan, and was on the point of leaving 
Spain forever, when a message from Isabella brought him 
again before her. She promised help, offering to pawn the 

; royal jewels of Castile, if necessary. (See Frontispiece.) 
Money was furnished from the royal treasury for two ships. 

! With the help of friends Columbus added a third. He was 
appointed Admiral and Viceroy of all new lands and seas. 

12. The First Voyage.—With his fleet of three vessels 
and a total crew of 120 men, Columbus sailed from Palos, 
Spain, August 3d, 1492. His ships were all small, hardly 
safe for an ocean voyage, but Columbus preferred them, 
thinking that his voyage would be short and that small 
vessels would be better for exploring an unknown coast. 
Three weeks were spent on one of the Canary islands in 
making repairs. On September sixth, the westward voyage 
began. The wind was generally favorable; the troubles of 
Columbus came from the fears of his men. The magnetic 
needle was found to vary from the true north as observed 
by the north star, and this puzzled even Columbus. The 
sight of birds and fishes known to live near land gave hope 
to the sailors, and often they thought that they saw land; but 
found afterwards that they had been deceived by cloud¬ 
banks in the western sky. All the persuasion and all the 




14 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


authority of Columbus were several times required to pre¬ 
vent the sailors from turning homeward. 


13. The Discovery.—On the night of October eleventh, 
Columbus saw a light moving in the distance, and early in 



the morning the glad shout of a watchful sailor announced 
that land was in sight. There was no mistake this time. 
On October 12th, 1492, Columbus landed upon one of the 


























COLUMBUS AND HIS VOYAGE. 


15 


Bahama Islands, to which he gave the name, San Salvador. 
He gave thanks to God for the safety of his expedition, 
and declared the land to be the property of the sovereigns 
of Spain. 

14. The inhabitants of the island were naked savages, 
who were filled with fear and wonder at the sight of white 
men. Columbus called them Indians, believing that he 

was near the coast of India, and the name American In- 

\ J 

dians has become the general name for the native races 
of the continent (17). 

15. Explorations.—Columbus spent several months ex¬ 
ploring San Salvador, Cuba, Hayti, and neighboring islands, 
searching always for gold and tropical products. His larg¬ 
est ship was wrecked on the coast of Hayti. A fort was 
then built from the wreck, and thirty-nine men were left 
as a garrison and the beginning of a colony. 

16. The return voyage began January 4th, 1493, with 
the two remaining ships. They met with violent storms, 
and were finally separated. After a perilous voyage, and 
detention by the Portuguese at one of the Azores and in 
the harbor of Lisbon, Columbus’s ship anchored at Palos, 
March fifteenth. The other vessel arrived shortly after¬ 
wards, having been driven northward into the Bay of 
Biscay. 

Questions on Map of Discoveries.—Name the explorers of the At¬ 
lantic coast of North America. Of the Gulf coast. Of the Pacific 
coast. What regions of the interior were penetrated? What part of 
South America was first explored? By whom? Name the largest 
rivers of North America. How many had been discovered by 1600? 
What are the best harbors on the Atlantic shore ? On the Pacific shore ? 
Did these early explorers find any of them ? Does North America offer 
an opportunity for a sailing vessel to penetrate the interior? What 
difficulties beset land expeditions? (Read about De Soto.) 


16 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER III. 

The People of the New Land. 

For Explanation.— Revealed; dialects; superstitious; museum. 

To be Pronounced.— Wig'wam; Iroquois (ir'o-quoy); Al-gon'quin; 
Pueblo (pweb'lo). 



Indian Village. 


17. The Indians of North America, frequently called 
red men on account of their tawny complexion, became 
known to Europeans first along the Atlantic coast. A sav¬ 
age people, divided into tribes, differing widely in habits, 
language, and character, and generally at war with one 
another, they never offered any serious barrier to the oc- 



















\ 




* /\ ^,:;\ 


'i/i/wij/ii ji 1 ''i ii / ,,//i '^ 111 1111 *J if i 1 " 

W4?u hum * > v//j , iMailHlijiiUXth/,'.') 








W/W)ii 




fnom^ 
































































THE PEOPLE OF THE NEW LAND. 


17 


cupation of this land by civilized nations. Within the pres¬ 
ent territory of*the United States the Indian population has 
gradually diminished. The remnants of the ancient tribes 
are now gathered in the Indian Territory and upon other 
lands reserved for them by our government. In British 
America they still remain numerous. 

18. Indian Life.— There were wide differences among 
the numberless Indian tribes. Some surpassed in hunting; 
others in rude agriculture. Some were constantly at war; 
others were glad to be at peace. Some built houses of poles 
covered with bark or skins ( wigwams ); others dug holes, or 
burrows, in the earth. Every tribe obeyed some chief as a 
leader in war, and the customs of the tribe, handed down 
from its ancestors, filled the place of laws. Students of 
Indian life have arranged the tribes in several groups, ac¬ 
cording to the relationships revealed by the study of their 
dialects. The two groups with which the early settlers on 
the Atlantic shore came most in contact were the Algon- 
quins and the Iroquois (181). The Algonquins stretched 
along the coast from the St. Lawrence River toward the 
southwest. The Iroquois were strongest in the central part 
of the present State of New York, stretching off to the west 
and south, a strong and intelligent people. 

19. Indian character was marked by bravery in war 
and fortitude in the endurance of fatigue and pain. Cun¬ 
ning was a virtue. To kill a sleeping foe was to the Indian 
more glorious than to subdue him in open fight. An Indian, 
never forgot nor forgave an injury. He would do anything 
for the sake of revenge. He had a power of oratory that 
could stir his companions to the fight, but no power of close 
thought or means of accurate expression either in speech 
or writing. He was extremely superstitious, believing gen¬ 
erally in a single supreme deity, yet engaging in religious 
ceremonies chiefly to ward off or to appease the wrath of 
evil spirits. He lacked energy and perseverance, and sel- 

2-H 


18 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 




1. Stone Ax. 2. Mortar and Pestle. 3. Arrow-Head. 
4. Water Bowl. 5. Stone Hammer. 

6. Serpent Mound. 7. Cliff Dwelling. 


































THE PEOPLE OF THE NEW LAND. 


19 


dom showed capacity for hard work. With his rude tools 
of stone, everything that he attempted was laborious. 
Without the knowledge of the useful metals, especially iron,, 
the Indian could never rise from a savage to a civilized 
man. 

20. Indian relics are found throughout the United States. 
The most abundant are the stone implements in use among 
the inhabitants found by the Europeans. Stone arrow¬ 
heads, hatchets, and mortars for grinding corn can be seen 
in almost any museum. In some parts of the country are 
found traces of an earlier and more civilized people. These 
traces consist chiefly in a series of earth-mounds beginning 
north of the Ohio and stretching toward the southwest. 

21. The Mound-builders is the name given to this earlier 
race. The mounds are of peculiar shapes. They are most 
numerous in Ohio, some of them over 1,000 feet long and 
several feet high. Inside the mounds have been found tools 
of copper, ornaments of copper and silver, and excellent 
clay pottery, skillfully decorated, all showing workmanship 
superior to that of the later tribes. Quite probably the 
mound-builders were related to the ancestors of the present 
Pueblo or “ village” Indians now living in New Mexico. 

22. The Aztecs were people found in Mexico and Peru 
on arrival of the Europeans (29). In civilization they were 
far in advance of the tribes of the United States. They 
had an established government, built cities of brick and 
stone buildings, and were wealthy in stores of the precious 
metals. 

23. [The Northmen, or ancient people of Norway, Sweden, and Den¬ 
mark, were the first of Europeans to venture long voyages upon the 
ocean. In the tenth century they made many voyages westward and 
shorter excursions southward. They settled in Iceland, and from Ice¬ 
land they reached Greenland, and a few visited the shore of North 
America (about 1000). Their discovery of America never became 
widely known. They did not continue their visits, and neither they 
nor any other people profited by the discovery.] 


20 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER IV. 

1493 - 1592 . 

Later Discoveries. 

For Explanation.—Adventurer; fabled; maritime. 

To be Pronounced.—Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re'go ves-poot'chee; 
Flor'en-tlne; Cor'tez; Pizarro (pe-zar'o); Bal-bo'a; Pan-a-ma/; Ponce 
de Leon (pon'tha da la-on 7 ); Ayllon (il-yon'); Nar-va/ez(eth); Ma-geP- 
lan; deSo'to; Col-o-ra/do; Ca-br'iPlo; Fe-redo; Juan de Fuca (hoo / an 
dafoo'ka); Denys (deh-n6); Verrazzano (ver-rat-sa/no); Cartier (kar- 
te-a/); CaVot; Bo-de'ga; Cor-te-re-aP. 

1. Spain. 

24. Columbus’s Report.—Though Columbus had failed 
to find the civilization and wealth that he expected, yet he 
was not discouraged. From the words and gestures of the 
natives in answer to his questions, he had been convinced 
that farther inland, or on some island to the south, lay the 
riches that he sought. Occasionally Indians had been seen 
with ornaments of gold, which they willingly bartered for 
trinkets. In his letter to the Spanish monarchs, “ respect¬ 
ing the islands found in the Indies,” Columbus wrote,— 
“ Your Highnesses have become masters of a new world, 
where our holy faith may become much increased, and 
whence stores of wealth may be derived.” 

25. The news of the successful voyage, and the wonders 
of the new land, spread quickly over Europe. Adventur¬ 
ers of all nations were eager to go in search of the fabled 
wealth. The greed of nations was aroused to gain posses¬ 
sions in the new lands and control of the Indian trade. 

26. [European Nations, 1493.—The maritime nations at the end of 
the fifteenth century were Spain, Portugal, France, and England. Hol¬ 
land had ships and sailors, but was subject to Spain, and could do 
nothing until she won independence (1648). Germany and Italy had 
no fleets and were divided into many states constantly quarreling. 
Sweden was too weak to compete with the great powers.] 


LATER DISCOVERIES. 


21 


27. Columbus’s Later Voyages.—Columbus made four 
voyages in all. On his second voyage he took with him 
horses, calves, goats, sheep, fowls, and seeds of oranges, lem¬ 
ons, and other orchard fruits, intending to provide for perma¬ 
nent settlement. He found that the men he had left in his 
fort (15) had perished, most of them murdered by the In¬ 
dians in revenge for outrages committed by the Spaniards. 
Columbus chose a new location, and founded a town on the 
Island of Hayti. He explored the interior of Hayti, and also 
the coast of Cuba, which he considered a part of the main¬ 
land of Asia. In a subsequent voyage (1498), he reached 
the coast of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco 
River. At another time he touched on the coast of Hon¬ 
duras, but never reached the mainland of North America. 
He died (1506) believing that he had reached India, and 
that the land of riches lay only a little further to the west. 

[The companions of Columbus on his first voyage continued his 
searches. Spanish colonies, under the control of military governors, 
were kept alive on the larger islands of the West Indies, and these 
afforded an opportunity for dispatching exploring parties to the conti¬ 
nent, and furnished supplies to expeditions sent from Spain.] 

28. [Columbia-America.—The western world is named from its dis¬ 
coverer, only in the language of poetry and song. The name, America, 
is derived from the first name of Amerigo Vespucci, an educated Flor¬ 
entine merchant and adventurer, who accompanied one of the early 
companions of Columbus on a voyage to South America ift 1499, and 
made a voyage for himself in 1501. A letter, in which he gave an account 
of the land seen in South America, was printed in several editions, in 
towns of Southern Germany, where printing was advancing (5). A 
suggestion of one of these printers led to the application of the name 
America to the land visited by Amerigo, and gradually the name was 
extended to the whole continent.] 

29. Spanish exploration had made known the Gulf coast 
of North America as early as 1520. Mexico was conquered 
by Cortez in 1520; and Peru by Pizarro in 1535. Both 

28. Find and commit to memory some poem or song in which this country 
is named Columbia. 



22 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


these lands were really rich, and their conquest brought 
large amounts of the precious metals to the Spanish king¬ 
dom. 

[In 1511, Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and saw the great 
ocean of the west, “ the great marine sea heretofore unknown to the 
inhabitants of Europe, Africke, and Asia.” As the land became known 
further north, the ocean being always seen to the south, it was for a 
long time known as the “ South Sea.” In 1512, Ponce de Leon landed 
on the eastern coast of Florida, giving the name because he discovered 
the land on Easter Sunday (in Spanish Pascua Florida ). In 1520, Ayl- 
lon, hunting for slaves, explored the coast northward as far as South 
Carolina. In 1528, Narvaez attempted to gain possession of Florida, 
but his party was destroyed by Indians and by shipwreck. In 1520, 
Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, sailed around 
South America into the ocean, which he named Pacific. He crossed the 
ocean and reached the East India islands. Here he was killed by sav¬ 
ages, but his ship was brought back to Spain by the survivors of his 
crew. The return voyage, by way of the Cape of Good Hope, was com¬ 
pleted in 1522, the first circumnavigation of the globe.] 

30. De Soto.—The most remarkable expedition into the 
interior was that of Ferdinand de Soto. He landed at 
Tampa Bay in 1539 with a large force, perhaps a thousand 
men, many of them mounted and clad in armor. He took 
with him hogs for food, and blood-hounds to kill Indians. 
For three years he wandered through the land of Florida, 
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. He came upon the 
great river near the southwest corner of Tennessee, crossed 
it and traversed a large part of Arkansas, hunting always 
for gold, and slaughtering and enslaving the Indians. He 
was “ a stern man and of few words, and after he had de¬ 
livered his own opinion he would not be contraried.” Fail¬ 
ing in the object of his expedition, at last, discouraged and 
exhausted, he died in 1542, and his companions, wishing 
to conceal his death from the Indians, buried him beneath 
the waters of the Mississippi. His surviving followers 
built boats on the Red River and sailed downward to the 
gulf. A very few succeeded in reaching the Spanish set¬ 
tlements on the Mexican coast. 


LATER DISCOVERIES. 


23 


31. [Expeditions from Mexico (29) went northward, both inland 
and along the coast. New Mexico was penetrated in 1540, and the 
Colorado River was discovered in the same year. Cabrillo and Ferelo, 
in 1543, sailed up the coast as far as Oregon; and in 1592 Juan de Fuca 
explored the coast northward to the strait named after him.] 

2. France. 

32. Early Voyages. —At an early date hardy fishermen 
from the north of France crossed the Atlantic and discov¬ 
ered the bountiful fisheries of the coast of Newfoundland. 
One of them, John Denys, in 1506, discovered the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. Private enterprise prompted these early voy¬ 
ages. Finally the example of Spain and Portugal roused 
Francis I., king of France, to take part in exploration. He 
is said to have exclaimed: “Why, these princes coolly divide 
the New World between them! I should like to see that 
article of Adam’s will which gives them America.” 

33. French Exploration. —A French fleet, commanded 
by Verrazzano, a Florentine, sailed in 1524. Verrazzano 
explored the Atlantic coast of the United States with con¬ 
siderable care, and sent an excellent account of his explo¬ 
rations to the king. Verrazzano set forth a true theory as to 
the size of the earth, and helped correct the error of Colum¬ 
bus (10). In 1534 Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence 
River, and turned the attention of France to that region. 

3. England. 

34. John Cabot was probably, like Columbus, a native 
of Genoa. He lived for a time in Venice, married a Vene¬ 
tian woman, but afterwards moved with his family to Bris¬ 
tol, England. Like Columbus, he had accepted the new 
views about the roundness of the earth, and was ready to 
test them. The great discovery of Columbus was much 
talked about in the Court of Henry VII. (41), and Cabot, 
laying his plans before the king, easily gained authority to 
make discoveries, and to carry on commerce with the new 
lands. In the early part of May, 1497, Cabot sailed from 


24 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Bristol. On June twenty-fourth, he landed probably on 
Cape Breton island, and took possession of the land in the 
name of the king of England. He returned in the early 
part of August, after an absence of about three months. 


35. A second voyage was made the following year, with 
John Cabot as commander, but the only record is drawn 
from the conversation of his son Sebastian, who no doubt 
accompanied his father, and has been regarded as the leader 
of the expedition. They coasted North America from where 


Sir Francis Drake. 






LATER DISCOVERIES. 


25 


they encountered ice, southward to the latitude of 36° N., 
or the vicinity of Albemarle Sound. 

36. Sir Francis Drake, a bold English navigator, having 
sailed around South America, in 1580 visited the shore of 
California. His ships passed a winter month in a bay, prob¬ 
ably Bodega (sometimes called Drake’s Bay), and, depart¬ 
ing, he named the land New Albion, claiming it as an 
English possession. 

4. Portugal. 

37. [Cortereal.—An agreement with Spain prevented Portugal from 
competing in the exploration of America. One voyage, however, is note¬ 
worthy. Cortereal, about 1501, explored the Atlantic coast from Maine 
northward, and called the country Terra de Labrador, or land of labor¬ 
ers, thinking the natives valuable for slaves.] 


38. Kesult and Forecast. —With the middle of the six¬ 
teenth century the voyages in search of the lands of “ great 
and exceeding riches” ceased. After the voyage of Magel¬ 
lan, the new land became known as a continent, with the 
vast Pacific separating it from Asia. Europeans continued 
seeking a route to India by a Northwest Passage around 
North America, and also by the northeast around Europe 
and Asia. The interest in the new world took the form of 
a desire to trade with the natives and to establish settle¬ 
ments for the development of the natural resources of the 
country. 

Rewriting of Paragraph 24. 

[.Frequently rewrite paragraphs of the narrative , condensing as much as 
practicable.'] 

Columbus reported to Ferdinand and Isabella that they were mas¬ 
ters of a new world, in which religion could be extended and from which 
wealth could be obtained. Though failing to find all he had hoped, he 
was led to this belief by the replies of the natives to his questions, and 
by seeing Indians with ornaments of gold. 

88. Write, in one column , so much of this paragraph as is result, and , 
in another, so much as is forecast. 




26 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES . 


Abstract of the Discoveries of a Century. 

Copy and complete the following Review of Discoveries—1492- 
1592. Refer both to the map between pages 16 and 17 and to the 
narrative: 



Portuguese. 












NOTE ON EUROPEAN HISTORY. 


27 


NOTE ON EUROPEAN HISTORY. 

39. [Protestantism.—When Columbus discovered America all Eu¬ 
rope upheld the Christian religion, and all except Russia was included in 
one great church, called Catholic or universal. Its center was at Rome. 
It had a systematic government, its chief officer being the Pope. A 
religious separation, however, had already commenced, which gained 
headway, about the year 1520, under the preaching of Martin Luther, a 
German monk. Luther and his followers protested against the sinful¬ 
ness and impurity of the Church of Rome, and the movement begun by 
them spread through Europe under the name of the Protestant Refor¬ 
mation. In the course of a hundred years, the nations of Northern 
Europe became for the most part Protestant, while Southern Europe 
remained for the most part Catholic. Fierce religious wars between 
Catholics and Protestants drove piany people to America. 

40 . Puritans.—England became a Protestant nation under Henry 
VIII. ( 41 ). For many years, however, the country was nearly equally 
divided between Catholics and Protestants, and the worship of the 
English Church did not differ very much from that of the Catholic 
Church. A considerable number of Englishmen desired a purer and 
more spiritual worship, and in the time of Queen Elizabeth ( 41 ) they 
came to be called Puritans. As they refused to comply with the re¬ 
quirements of the regular English Church they were also called Non¬ 
conformists. Some went so far as to organize congregations and a 
form of worship for themselves, and were, therefore, called Separatists. 

41 . English Sovereigns.—When Columbus discovered America, 
Henry VII. was king of England. His full name was Henry Tudor, 
and with him began the line of Tudor sovereigns. In 1603, James 
Stuart, king of Scotland, succeeded to the throne of England as James 
I., and England and Scotland have since had the same ruler. In 1649, 
at the end of a civil war, called the Puritan Revolution, Charles I. was 
beheaded, and there was no regular king in England until 1660, when 
Charles II., the son of Charles I., was placed on the throne (Stuart Res¬ 
toration). In 1688, James II., successor to Charles, was deposed, and 
William and Mary were made joint rulers. 

Table of English Sovereigns. 

TUDOR FAMILY. 

Henry VII. 1485-1509. Mary . . 

Heftry VIII. 1509-1547. Elizabeth 

Edward VI. 1547-1553. _ 

40. State, in your own language , the difference between Puritans and 
Separatists. 


1553-1558. 

1558-1603. 










28 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


STUART FAMILY. 

James 1. 1603-1625. 

Charles 1. 1625-1649. 

(Beheaded in 1649.) 

The Commonwealth, 1649-1660. 
(Rule of Oliver Cromwell and 
the House of Commons.) 


Charles II . 1660-1685. 

(Stuart restored.) 

James II. 1685-1688. 

(Deposed 1688.) 

William and Mary .... 1688-1702. 
Anne. 1702-1714. 


HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

George 1. 1714-1727. 

George II. 1727-1760. 

George III. 1760-1820. 

George IV. 1820-1830. 

William IV. 1830-1837. 

Victoria. 1837 -. 


42. The English Government.—English laws are made by Parlia¬ 
ment, which consists of two assemblies—the House of Commons and 
the House of Lords. The House of Commons, at the present time, 
represents the people of Great Britain nearly as our Congress repre¬ 
sents the people of the United States (358). Members of the House of 
Lords hold their positions chiefly by right of birth, the title passing 
from father to oldest son in the families of high rank, called the nobil¬ 
ity. Under the Tudors, the House of Commons did not have much 
power, and did not represent the people so much as it does now. In 
that time the king’s will ruled the land almost entirely. Under the 
Stuart kings a great change began, and by the Puritan Revolution— 
1642-9—(a war between the people of England, represented by the 
House of Commons, and King Charles I., aided by the Cavaliers, or 
nobility), the House of Commons gained a controlling power in the 
government of Great Britain. This power has increased, until now 
the House of Commons practically governs the British Empire. The 
man who has the most influence in the House of Commons is selected 
by the sovereign to see that the laws are executed, and is called the 
Premier oT Prime Minister. He selects other men to assist him. They 
fill several high offices, having charge of departments of public affairs, 
as the treasury, the navy, etc. The Prime Minister and his assistants 
are known as the Ministry, or the Cabinet.] 















BEGINNING OF SETTLEMENT. 


29 


CHAPTER V. 

1540 - 1607 . 

Beginning of Settlement. 

For Explanation.—Flinch; notable; impediment; conceded; dep¬ 
redations ; patent; dispatched ; equipped; armada; compete. 

To be Pronounced.—Russia (rush 7 e-a); pre'mi-er; Ro-ber-val 7 ; de 
Monts 7 (mong); Ar 7 gall; Bra-zil 7 ; Ribaut (re-bo 7 ); Beaufort (bu 7 fort); 
Laudonniere (lo-don-yare 7 ); Saint Augustine (sent au-gus 7 tin); Men- 
endez (ma-nen 7 deth); D6m-i-nique 7 (nek); de (deh) Gourgues (goorj); 
Huguenots (hu 7 ge-nots); Santa Fe (san 7 ta-fa); Frdb 7 ish-er; Raleigh 
(raw 7 iy). 

43. Many attempts to plant settlements within the 
present territory of the United States were made during the 
latter part of the sixteenth century. They were failures, be¬ 
cause men did not know the difficulty of living in a new 
land, and did not come prepared. The settlers were often 
adventurers, not men of perseverance. There was no regu¬ 
lar communication with the old world to furnish supplies 
to the young settlements, and Indians joined with famine 
in the work of their destruction. 

1. France. 

44. Exploration and Attempted Colonization. —In 1540 
the king of France commissioned Roberval, a French noble¬ 
man, to build ships with which to explore the St. Lawrence 
River, and to lead out a company of settlers to occupy the 
land. Cartier, who had visited the region in 1534-5 (33), 
was appointed pilot, and sailed in 1541 with a part of Rober- 
val’s company. Roberval and the remainder waited for the 
completion of more ships. Cartier and party spent the win¬ 
ter of 1541-2 in a fort, which they built on the bank of the 
St. Lawrence, somewhere near Quebec. They suffered great¬ 
ly from cold, and want of food. Many died. The survivors 
hastened to return to France early in the spring. At the 
mouth of the river, they met Roberval with the rest of the 
party, but did not turn back to the scene of their sufferings. 


30 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


In a few months, Roberval and the second party followed 
them back to France,, and this attempted colony was a failure. 

45. [Canada, however, 
became a French posses¬ 
sion. French fishermen 
never ceased to frequent 
the fisheries of Newfound¬ 
land, and French sailors 
opened a profitable trade 
in furs with the Indians 
along the St. Lawrence. 

Acadia (Nova Scotia) w T as 
settled first, a party led by 
De Monts gaining a per 
manent foothold in 1605. 

Quebec was founded in 
1608, by Champlain, a man 
renowned for his explora¬ 
tions in the interior (175). 

In this region the sons 
of France flourished, free Map Questions.—By whom and when was 
from interference, and un- the first settlement made in Nova Scotia? 
der the care of Jesuit mis- w hat point ? When and by whom was 
sionaries (176) and the the settlement of Quebec begun ? Whatnat- 
Church of Rome (39). A ura j division of land is Nova Scotia? Bor- 
colony located further dered by what waters ? 
south at Mount Desert, in 
1613, was destroyed by Englishmen.] 

46. French Protestants, called Huguenots, foreseeing 
years of persecution that were to come upon them in 
France, labored to make a home in America (39). After 
a fruitless attempt in Brazil, a company led by Ribaut, in 
1562, selected the harbor of Port Royal, South Carolina, 
and built a fort near the present site of Beaufort. At 
first they thought this place “ the fairest, fruitfullest, and 
pleasantest of all the world,” but when the supplies gave 
out, they deserted and went home. Laudonniere led the 
next colony, in 1564. They sailed five miles up St. John’s 
River, Florida, and built Fort Caroline. The settlement 

J/5. What lands may be approached through the St. Lawrence River? 
Why was the possession of the St. Lawrence valuable to France? 








BEGINNING OF SETTLEMENT. 


31 


did not prosper. “ The 
foundation stone was 
forgotten; there were 
no tillers of the soil.” 
Visions of military con¬ 
quest and gold filled 
the minds of the col¬ 
onists. Some of them 
mutinied and turned pi¬ 
rates, attacking Span¬ 
ish vessels. Troubles 
within the colony were 
enough to ruin it; it 
fell, however, a victim 
to Spanish hatred. 

47. [Spanish Cruelty and 
its Punishment.—Philip II., 
king of Spain, commis¬ 
sioned Pedro Menendez, a 
man blood-thirsty and big¬ 
oted, to rid his possessions 
of the Protestant heretics. 
Menendez left Spain in the 
year 1565 with a large force. 
His fleet was scattered, how¬ 
ever, as he reached Florida, 
and with only three vessels 
he appeared at the mouth 
of the St. John’s. Meeting 
there a strong French fleet, he retired down the coast and found his miss¬ 
ing men already at work laying out St. Augustine. The French fleet 
sailed to attack him, but was wrecked by a storm. Hearing this, Men¬ 
endez decided to march overland upon the French fort, now poorly de¬ 
fended. Through a raging storm, thick forests, and marshes, he pushed 
his half-starved men. “ This is God’s war,” he said, “ and we must not 
flinch. We must wage it with blood and fire.” Few were the. French¬ 
men that, escaping his fury, reached the small vessels left in the harbor 
and sailed for France. Menendez found the crew of the wrecked fleet 
struggling along the shore to reach their fort, and put them to death 
without mercy. The tidings of the massacre called forth a cry of horror 
from all Protestants. Three years later Dominique De Gourgues, who 



Map Questions.—At what points and 
at what dates were settlements made by 
Huguenots? In which of the present 
United States? Tell the same of Spanish 
settlements. What is the character of the 
coast of South Carolina, Georgia, and Flor¬ 
ida? Are there good harbors ? Was prog¬ 
ress into the interior easy? What diffi¬ 
culties existed? Of these settlements, 
which one locates a present city? 




32 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


had sailed from France for the purpose, fell upon the fort at St. Augus¬ 
tine and put to death 400 Spaniards, with the same cruelty. But it was 
not for France to plant the banner of Protestantism in the new world, 
or to gain territory on the Atlantic shore of the United States. Many 
Huguenots, as French Protestants were called, however, subsequently 
found a refuge among English colonies.] 

2. Spain. 

48. Spanish Settlements.—The settlement at St. Augus¬ 
tine, so bloodily commenced in 1565 (47), remained a Span¬ 
ish settlement until Florida became a part of the United 
States (456). Thus St. Augustine is our oldest city. Santa 
Fe, in New Mexico, our second city in point of age, was 
founded likewise by Spaniards, in 1582. Neither of these 
cities has been otherwise distinguished in the history of the 
United States. Spanish rule was also extended over the 
new world from New Mexico and California southward. 

3. England. 

49. Englishmen claimed the main-land of North Amer¬ 
ica from the discovery of the Cabots. They had no idea of 
the real value of the country, and regarded the new land 
simply an impediment in the road to India. The thing to 
do was to find a way around or through it. In 1527, Robert 
Thorne, a sea captain, addressed a letter to Henry VIII. 
(41), urging the king to gain glory and wealth by finding a 
northern passage. Portugal had the route around Africa, 
and Spain that by way of the Strait of Magellan. The north¬ 
ern and most direct course, he said, was left for England. 
But the king took no interest in the matter, and the sailors 
who attempted the passage were stopped by frozen seas. 

50. [Voyages were made by Martin Frobisher, in 1576, and after¬ 
wards. In 1579 John Davis pushed his way far up the coast of Green¬ 
land, into Baffin’s Bay. Frobisher’s Bay and Davis Strait still keep alive 
the names of these bold sailors.] 

51. The Gilbert and Raleigh Expeditions.—Sir Hum¬ 
phrey Gilbert was anxious to extend discovery into the 
vast land of North America, as well as to sail around it. 


BEGINNING OF SETTLEMENT. 


33 



MENT. 


Gilbert was half brother of Sir 
Walter Raleigh, and the two en¬ 
gaged in the enterprise of plant¬ 
ing settlements somewhere be¬ 
tween the French in Canada 
and the Spaniards in Florida. 
At this time every English 
expedition meant depredations 
upon Spanish commerce, if an 
opportunity was offered. En¬ 
glish sailors hated Spaniards 
as the enemies of mankind, 
and considered the plunder¬ 
ing of Spanish ships and col¬ 
onies a righteous occupation. 
Gilbert led an ill-fated expedi¬ 
tion to Newfoundland in 1583. 


Questions on the Map .—What A fruitless search for precious 
inland water was explored by metals, shipwreck, sickness, 
Raleigh’s first expedition? In and degertion 0 f the sailors, 
what year? In what years and 

where were settlements made? prevented any advance south- 
Jamestown was settled by a ward, and on the way home the 
company called the London little vegse l carrying Sir Hum- 
Company. When? On what , u i " i i i 
river located? In which of the P hre y was devoured and swal- 
present States of the Union? De- lowed up of the sea.” Queen 
scribe the shore of North Caro- Elizabeth gave a patent to Ra¬ 
leigh the next year, for “dis¬ 
and planting new 
make good locations? What lands/’ and he immediately 
advantages had Jamestown? dispatched two ships, well 

S"*«< ^ 

etc.) commanded by Philip Amidas 

and Arthur Barlow. They anchored in Pamlico Sound, 
made friends with the Indians, and carried home a favor¬ 


lina. To what territory does 
Chesapeake Bay afford an en¬ 
trance? Did Raleigh’s colonies covering 


able report. 

3-H 






34 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



52. Raleigh’s first colony was composed of 101 persons, 
who were carried out by Sir Richard Grenville, in 1585, and 
left on Roanoke Island. They hunted for gold instead of 
raising grain, quarreled with the Indians, nearly starved, 
and were glad to get home the next year in the ships of Sir 
Francis Drake (36), who happened to visit them. A few 
weeks after their departure, Grenville arrived with abun¬ 
dant supplies, but found no colony to use them. 

[The settlers were not well chosen. Many were mere hunters of gold 
and silver. “ Others were of a nice bringing up, only of cities or townes, 


Sir Walter Raleigh. 



BEGINNING OF SETTLEMENT. 


35 


or such as never had seene the world before. Because there were not 
to be found any English cities, nor such fair houses, nor at their owne 
wish any of their old accustomed dainty food, nor any soft beds of 
downe or feathers, the country was to them miserable, and their reports 
thereof according.”] 

53. Raleigh’s Second Colony. —A second company of 150 
men and women, made up by Raleigh and others, sailed in 
1587, intending to settle on Chesapeake Bay. The ship¬ 
master, however, landed them on Roanoke Island, and for 
three years a war between England and Spain prevented 
the sending of supplies. Then no trace of them could be 
found, and search was soon given up. 

[A voyage of Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, gave the name to Cape 
Cod, and served to direct attention to that region. The first English 
settlement, to live, in all North America, began at Jamestown, Virginia, 
in 1607 (102).] 

54. Result and Forecast. —The sixteenth century closed 
leaving the Spaniards the only Europeans living in Amer¬ 
ica. During the next century, however, the English gain a 
permanent hold on all the Atlantic coast between Florida 
and Canada. The French maintain their hold on the St. 
Lawrence, and thence travel inward, while the Dutch and 
Swedes compete with England on the Atlantic shore. 

Tabular Abstract of the Beginning of Settlement. 


Copy and complete the following review: 


Nation. 

Leader. 

Date. 

Region. 

Result. 


1. Cartier and Roberval. 

1540-2. 

Near Quebec. 

Failure. 

French.. 

2. 

3. 



Success. 

Spanish.. 

1 . 

2. 





1 . 




English.. 

2. 





3. 





54. What part of this paragraph is result and what forecast ? 













36 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER VI. 

1620-1643. 

Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. 

For Explanation.—Revealed; incorporation; conferred; Joint Stock 
Companies; monopoly; resident councilors; franchise; Lincolnshire; 
immunity; temerity; persecution; mortgaging; emigrant; struck root; 
craftsmen; vanguard; propagate; satirized. 

To he Pronounced.—Leyden (lUden); South-hamp'ton; lam'ent-a-ble. 

Outline of Paragraph 56.— New scheme of settlement in 1606. James 
1. gives to companies titles to lands, and certain rights. Territory from 
Cape Fear to Halifax, extending to Pacific Ocean, divided equally be¬ 
tween Northern and Southern Colonies; Southern Colony called Lon¬ 
don Company, Northern Colony called Plymouth Company; both Joint 
Stock, with monopoly of fishing and trade. 

[Make a similar outline of other paragraphs.] 

55. More than a century of exploration had left the in¬ 
terior of North America still unknown to Europeans, but it 
had revealed the profits of the northern fisheries, and of fur 
trade with the Indians. It had spread a favorable report 
of the natural virtues of the land, while the old hope of 
mines of gold and silver still lived on. 

56. The Two Companies. —A change in the manner of 
English settling was made in 1606, when James I. (41) gave 
titles to land, and charters of incorporation to two great 
trading and colonizing companies. The territory of North 
America, from Cape Fear to Halifax, and from ocean to 
ocean, including all the islands within 100 miles of the 
coast, was equally divided between the companies, which 
were to be known as the Northern Colony and the South¬ 
ern Colony. As most of the company for the Southern 
Colony lived in London, the company came to be called the 
London Company; and from a similar cause the company 
for the Northern Colony received the name of Plymouth 

56. How did the Northern Colony come to he known as the Plymouth 
Companyf 




PLYMOUTH AND MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 37 

Company. These were joint stock companies. Their 
charters conferred monopolies of fishing and trade. 

[Afterwards each company was reorganized, the London Company 
coming to be called the Virginia Company; and the Plymouth Com¬ 
pany being changed to the Council for New England. The territory of 
the six States east of New York received the name, New England, from 
Captain John Smith (104), who explored, and made an excellent map 
of the coast, in 1614.] 

57. Colonizing was at once commenced by both com¬ 
panies. The London Company was fairly successful at 
Jamestown, in 1607 (102), but the efforts of the Plymouth 
Company were failures. 

58. [The Charters. —“For each colony separate councils were in 
turn to name resident councilors for the colonies. Thirteen members 
constituted the resident council. They had power to choose their own 
president, to fill vacancies in their numbers, and, a jury being required 
only in capital cases, to act as a court of last resort in all other causes. 
Keligion was established in accordance with the forms and doctrines 
of the Church of England. The adventurers, as the members of the 
company were called, had power to coin money and collect a revenue, 
for twenty-one years, from all vessels trading with their ports. One 
article alone, and only in the most general terms, provides for the lib¬ 
erty of the subjects, as follows: ‘ Who (ever) shall dwell and inhabit 
within every and any of said several colonies and plantations, and 
everjr of their children, shall have and enjoy all liberties, immunities, 
and franchises within any of our other dominions, to all intents and 
purposes as if they had been abiding and born in this our realm of 
England.’”] 

Plymouth. 

59. Separatist Puritans.—“ The history of Massachu¬ 
setts begins in an obscure Lincolnshire village, among a 
company of plain farmers and simple rustics, who had 
separated from the Church of England, and paid for their 
temerity by bitter and unceasing persecution.” They were 
Separatists, a branch of the great body of English Puri¬ 
tans (40), and sought outside of England for shelter from 
persecution. A congregation gathered first at Amsterdam, 
then removed to Leyden, where they learned the work of 
tradesmen, and maintained themselves by manual labor. 
They dreaded the mingling of their children with the easy- 


38 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 




Y k Puritan. 

61. The emigrants, or Pil¬ 
grims as they were called, gath¬ 
ered at Southampton, England, 
in the summer of 1620, and in 
August sailed with two vessels, 
the Mayflower and the Speed¬ 
well. After eight days they put 
back to Dartmouth for repairs. 
Again they sailed, and again 
they had to return, for the mas¬ 
ter of the Speedwell claimed that 
his ship was leaking. A third 
time (September eleventh), only 
the Mayflower put out, this 


Y® Easy-Going Dutch. 


going Dutch, and, longing for a 
permanent home, their thoughts 
turned toward America. 


60. Overtures for land were 
made to the Council for New 
England, and were favorably 
received. Money, too, was need¬ 
ed, and for this they made terms 
with London merchants, mort¬ 
gaging the profits of their labor 
for seven years. A charter was 
gained, but it was not put in the 
names of any of the emigrants, 
for they had no favor with the 
king. This charter was left in 
England, and seems never to 
have been used. 



PLYMOUTH AND MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 



0 5 10 20 

1_I-!-L. 


time from Plymouth, car¬ 
rying all the company, now 
reduced to 102. 

[The company proper consist¬ 
ed of thirty-four adult males, 
eighteen of them accompanied 
by their wives. Of minor chil¬ 
dren there were twenty boys 
and eight girls. Besides these, 
there were three maid-servants, 
and nineteen men-servants, sail¬ 
ors, and craftsmen.] 

62. The Location.—The 

plan was to settle in the 
north part of Virginia, and 
the merchants, the money¬ 
lenders, had taken out a 
patent from the Virginia 
Company. This was prob¬ 
ably the authority under 
which the Pilgrims sailed. 

Map Questions.-When and where They decided, however, to 
did the Pilgrims first land? When , £ , ,. 

and where first locate? Where and search for a location some- 
when was the first settlement by the where near the Hudson 
Massachusetts Bay Colony? Name Riyer, in the vicinity of the 
the settlements that were made two Dutch (ul) Wom out 
years later. Did eastern Massachu- v ' 

setts offer any advantages for early With the voyage, when off 
settlement? Has it good harbors? Cape Cod, they gained the 
Has it any rivers offering avenues to s h e l ter 0 f the point and 
the interior? Would settlers there he . , ,,, , 

in danger of disturbance by nations anchored, blessing ye 
seeking to control the new land? God of heaven, who had 
Why? What is the distance between brought them over ye vast 
Plymouth and Boston ? and furioug and de . 

livered them from all the perils and miseries thereof.” 
After a thorough exploration of the coast, they decided 
upon a location, naming the place Plymouth, in honor of 
the English port. Here they landed December 21st, 1620, 


Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay 
Colonies. 





40 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


“ the vanguard of a great column, bearing a civilization and 
a system of government which was destined to prevail 
throughout the length and breadth of a continent. 55 On 
board the Mayflower, they bound themselves by a solemn 
agreement to make laws for the common good, promising 
obedience to them. 

63. A fearful struggle with cold, famine, and disease 
followed. “That which was most sad and lamentable was, 
that in 2 or 3 months 5 time halfe their company dyed, espe- 
tialy in Jan: and February, being ye depth of winter and 
wanting houses and other comforts. 55 They bore up under 
all difficulties and the colony struck root. 

64. [The Chief Men. —John Carver was elected governor before dis¬ 
embarking, but died during the first winter. His successor was Will¬ 
iam Bradford, who was reelected year after j^ear. He has left us an 
invaluable history of the colony. Miles Standish was the military 
leader, a small man, but renowned for his courage. “ As a little chim¬ 
ney is soon fired, so was the Plymouth captain, a man of very little 
stature, yet of a hot and angry temper.”] 

65. The growth of Plymouth was steady but never 
rapid. The early years were burdened by the mortgage 
to the London merchants. According to the first arrange¬ 
ment the colonists held land in common, and all gave a 
portion of their time to pay the common debt. In 1626 
eight of the leading men, with the help of London friends, 
assumed the outstanding debts, receiving a monopoly of 
the colony’s trade as a compensation. Land was assigned 
to every man, and greater prosperity marked the introduc¬ 
tion of private ownership. Several other towns in time 
grew from the Plymouth settlement, 

Massachusetts Bay. 

66. The First Settlement.—A well laid plan of Puritan 
colonization built the towns clustering about Massachusetts 

63. Two hundred years ago there was little uniformity in spelling—every 
one seeming to follow his own taste. Write and properly spell the misspelled 
words in the quotation of this paragraph. 

64 . Read Longfellow's poem , “ The Courtship of Miles Standish ” 




PLYMOUTH AND MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 


41 


Bay. “ Men of fortune and religious zeal 1 offered the help 
of their purses to advance the glory of God’ by establish¬ 
ing a colony of the best of their countrymen on the shores 
of New England.” The Council for New England conveyed 
a belt of land, lying between the Merrimac and the Charles 
Rivers, from ocean to ocean, to six men, one of whom was 
John Endicott, and these, in 1629, obtained from Charles I. 
a charter incorporating them as “ The Governor and Com-, 
pany of Massachusetts Bay in New England.” The year 
before, Endicott, as deputy governor, with others, had gone 
to Salem, already inhabited by fishermen. More immi¬ 
grants came in 1629, and the people of Salem organized a 
Puritan “ Church-State,” electing Mr. Francis Higginson 
teacher, and Mr. John Skelton pastor, both of whom were 
non-conformist clergymen. 

67. The Grand Plan.—The location at Salem served as 
a foothold; the great achievement of the Puritans was made 
in 1630. The charter had been granted to men supposed 
to live in England; but this year the majority of the com¬ 
pany quietly removed to America, carrying their charter 
along with them. Free from interference, they could now 
carry out their plan of a Puritan Church and State, and 
govern themselves under the authority of the English king. 
During the year a thousand crossed the ocean. This was 
not the movement of a band of adventurers, but the “migra¬ 
tion of a people.” Seven new towns around the bay were 
“planted” by the immigrants of 1630. 

68. [The founders of Massachusetts Bay were Puritans, but they 
had not severed their fellowship with the Church of England. Higgin- 
son’s farewell to his native land represents the feeling of his fellows: 
“ We will not say as the Separatists were wont to say at their leaving 
of England, ‘Farewell, Babylon! Farewell, Rome!’ but we will say 
Farewell, dear England! Farewell to the Church of God in England^ 
and all Christian friends! We do not go to New England as Separat¬ 
ists from the Church of England; though we cannot but separate from 
the corruption in it, but we go to practice the positive part of church 
reformation and propagate the gospel in America.”] 


42 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


69. Government.—The charter gave authority to the 
freemen of the company to elect annually a governor, dep¬ 
uty governor, and eighteen assistants, from their own num¬ 
ber. Any Englishman might join the colony and own land, 
but to vote he must be elected a freeman by those already 
freemen. In 1631 the rule was made that no man should 
be elected a freeman unless a member in good standing in 
one of the regular Puritan churches. This was in accord¬ 
ance with the Puritan idea of a State resting upon the 
Church as its foundation, with the Bible as the authority for 
civil laws. As many who were not regular church members 
joined the colony, the voting power was wielded by a mi¬ 
nority. 

[This restriction caused dissatisfaction, and was one reason for the 
migration to Connecticut, the Connecticut settlers being men who 
favored more extended suffrage (78).] 

70. [Intruders.—Building a home for themselves in their own fash¬ 
ion, the Puritans had no notion of any duty to share it with persons 
who made themselves disagreeable. They regarded as dangerous to the 
commonwealth all who desired to introduce variations from the belief 
and worship of the Puritan congregation, and accordingly employed 
the civil authority to expel them from the colony. There were many 
disturbers. Roger Williams, the minister of Salem, disagreed with the 
other ministers, and was banished in 1635 (71, 72). Mrs. Anne Hutch¬ 
inson, a restless and energetic woman, got up meetings for women, in 
which she introduced new doctrines and satirized the ministers. She 
and her adherents were banished from the colony as “unfit for the 
society” of its citizens. Massachusetts w T as a strong colony, but con¬ 
sidered freedom of opinion dangerous.] 

59. To what branch of the Puritans did the Plymouth Colony belong f 

40, 68. How did the Massachusetts Bay Colony differ from these f 



OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 


43 


CHAPTER VII. 

1634-1643. 

Other New England Colonies. 

For Explanation.—Controversy; ferment; fanatics; fervor; turbu¬ 
lent; factious; factions; brunt; allegiance; nucleus. 

To be Pronounced.—Pis-cat'a-qua; Gor'ge§. 

Rhode Island. 

71. Providence Founded, 1636. —Roger Williams, a good 
man, but fond of controversy, had been chosen pastor of 
Salem church on the death of Mr. Skelton (66). He found 
favor with his congregation, but raised a ferment in the 
Bay colony by his peculiar opinions. After his banishment 
(70) he retired to the southward with a few friends, and in 
1636 they built homes at the head of Narragansett Bay. 
Williams obtained a title to the surrounding land from the 
Indians, and named his location Providence, in memory of 
his preservation from the perils of banishment. 

72. [Williams reproved the women of Salem for going unveiled; he 
persuaded Endicott to cut the cross (a Catholic emblem) out of the 
English flag. Some believing in Williams would not follow a flag with 
the cross in it, while others, honoring the old flag, would not have a flag 
with the cross out of it. Williams claimed that the colonists received 
no title to land by their charter, for, he said, the King of England had 
no right to give away what belonged to the Indians. Williams also 
maintained that punishment for matters of conscience and belief was 
persecution, and he carried out this principle of toleration in the gov¬ 
ernment afterwards established for Rhode Island. For this reason the 
historian, George Bancroft, says of him : “ Let the name of Roger Will¬ 
iams be preserved in universal history as one who advanced moral 
and political science, and made himself a benefactor of his race.”] 

73. Newport, Portsmouth. —Mrs. Hutchinson (70) and 
some others who found living in Massachusetts impossible 
or unpleasant, followed Williams to the south. A settle¬ 
ment was made at Portsmouth in 1638, and at Newport 
on the island of Rhode Island in 1639. These settlements 
grew slowly, and had no regular government until 1644. 


44 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


[“ The first settlers of both Providence and Newport were the ex¬ 
treme fanatics who always come to the surface in a period of intense 
religious fervor. They were men and women who could not submit to 
a strong and well-ordered government . . . the factious and turbulent 
elements of the rigid, order-loving, and strong communities of Connec¬ 
ticut and Massachusetts.”— Lodge.] 

74. Government. —Williams went to England, and in 
1644 obtained from Parliament a charter of incorporation 
for the “Providence Plantation on Narragansett Bay,” 
authorizing a representative government, which got under 
way in a few years. Perfect freedom of religious belief 
and worship was allowed, but the right of voting was lim¬ 
ited to land owners. 

[The islands towns set up a separate government in 1651, but in 1663 
(92) the factions were united under the name of the “ Governor and 
Company of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.”] 

Connecticut. 

75. The first settlements in Connecticut were offshoots 
from Massachusetts, attracted by the good farming land 
along the Connecticut River (69). The first regular emi¬ 
gration from Massachusetts to Connecticut took place in 
1635 and 1636. Towns were formed, which in 1637 re¬ 
ceived the names of Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford. 
Dutch from New York (141) had built trading posts, and 
were disposed to contest the occupation of the land. The 
Massachusetts men strengthened their hold, established 
churches and towns, and became the masters of the valley. 

76. [The English title to Connecticut land had passed from the 
Plymouth Company (56) into the hands of two noblemen (Lord Sav- 
and-Sele, and Lord Brooke), and some others. By the authority of 
these men, a fort was built at the mouth of the river, and, in 1639, the 
town of Saybrook was commenced.] 

77. [Pequod War, 1637.—The towns of Connecticut had to bear the 
brunt of the first serious Indian war. The Pequods, a fierce tribe living 
east of the Connecticut, were annoyed at the presence of the whites. 
They committed several murders, and finally, in 1637, attacked Say- 
brook fort. Massachusetts sent Captain Endicott and 120 men to help 
the men of Connecticut, and the Indians were driven to their forts. A 


OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 


45 


dangerous alliance between the Pequods and the Narragansett tribe 
was prevented by Roger Williams, whom the Indians revered. One of 
the Pequod forts was surrounded and set on fire, and the Indians were 
shot as they tried to escape. Their warriors slain, their women and 
children distributed as captives, the tribe of Pequods was crushed. In¬ 
dians had, as yet, no firearms, and their arrows were no match for bul¬ 
lets. The energy and severity displayed in punishing the Pequods 
prevented further Indian troubles for many years.] 


Analysis of the Pequod War. 


( Connecticut , 1637.) 


Cause. 


Indians annoyed by the white people taking their land, 
commit murders, and attack Saybrook fort. 


Events 


1. Indians driven to their forts. 

2. Alliance with the Narragansetts prevented by Roger Will 

iams. 

3. Indian fort surrounded, burned, and warriors slain. 


.. 1. Tribe crushed, 

ult 

2. Indians, taught to fear the whites, keep peace for many 
years. 

( Use the above analysis as a model in the analysis of future topics.) 


78. Government. —The towns along the Connecticut 
united in forming a government “ with the first written con¬ 
stitution in America.” The government was democratic. 
The freemen elected their governor, and representatives in 
the legislature. The right to vote was not limited to church 
members. Every freeman had to swear allegiance to the 
Commonwealth of Connecticut, and there was no mention 
of any other sovereign. The first governor was elected in 
1639. Hartford was the seat of government. 

79. Another Puritan colony began at New Haven in 
1638, upon land obtained from the Indians. In forming a 
government, the colonists asserted that “ the Scriptures are 
the only perfect rule of a commonwealth.” Their church 
and state were one. Other towns were settled on Long 








46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Island Sound, and New Haven became a second nucleus. 
For a long time the name of the Connecticut settlements 
was “ The Colonies of Connecticut and New Haven.” 

New Hampshire. 

80. The first settlement in New Hampshire was made 
in 1623, at the mouth of the Piscataqua River, by David 
Thomson, a Scotchman, who came with a patent from the 
Council for New England (56). Three years later Thom¬ 
son moved to Boston Harbor. Another party of settlers 
• located further up the river at Dover, probably in 1627. 
More settlers were sent in 1630 by Sir Ferdinando Gorges 
and John Mason, of the Council for New England, who had 
received a patent covering the territory of New Hampshire 
and Maine. They occupied Thomson’s buildings at the 
mouth of the Piscataqua, and there grew the town of Ports¬ 
mouth. New Hampshire was parried in honor of Mason’s 
home, the county of Hampshire, England. 

81. [Other towns within the territory of New Hampshire grew from 
the Massachusetts settlements. Immigrants also came from England, 
and in later times from the northern part of Ireland. The towns gov¬ 
erned themselves in the New England fashion, and-some established 
Puritan churches. In 1641 all the people of New Hampshire were glad 
to come under the rule of Massachusetts, and they so continued for 
thirty-eight years.] 


SUMMARY. 


Five governments are now (1643) established in New England, 
independent of each, other and practically independent of England. 


Name. 

Date of First Settlement. 

Present State. 

1. Plymouth .... 



( Massachusetts Bay 

. 1628 ) (66) 

Massachusetts. 

' t New Hampshire . 

. 1623 (80) 

New Hampshire. 

3. Providence .... 

. 1636^ (71) 


and 


Rhode Island. 

Rhode Island . . . 

. 16391 (73) 


4. Connecticut . . . 

. 1635 ) (75) 


5. New Haven . . . 

. 1638 1(79) 

Connecticut. 
















NEW ENGLAND. 


47 


CHAPTER VIII. 

1643-1750. 

New England. 

For Explanation. —Yeomanry; niggardly; instinct; judicial; sov¬ 
ereign; smuggling; forfeited; tradition; popular; dissolve; property 
qualification; veto; wizard; mysterious; dead letter. 

To fie Pronounced.— Po-ka-iio / ket; Swansey (Swon'ze). 

82. Puritan emigration to New England was very large, 
until the outbreak of the civil war in England (42), in 
1642, stopped the persecution that had been its cause. 
Twenty thousand people came here between 1629 and 1639. 
These people were of the purest English stock, “ drawn from 
the country gentlemen, small farmers, and yeomanry of 
the mother country. Many of the emigrants were men of 
wealth, as the old lists show, and all of them, with few 
exceptions, were men of property and good standing.” A 
small inflowing continued during the century, additions 
being received from French Protestants, and Scotch who 
had lived in the north of Ireland. 

83. The land was poor for agriculture. Along the Con¬ 
necticut River there was farming land of fair quality; but 
in general the soil was thin, and hard to cultivate. But 
there were noble forests, and fine rivers afforded an abun¬ 
dance of water power—the life of early manufactures. Furs, 
lumber, and fish were natural exports. The energy of the 
people took advantage of every help that nature gave, and 
quickly covered the niggardly soil with thriving villages. 

84. The towns, “the glory and strength of New En¬ 
gland,” show the political instinct of the English race. 
The settlers of New England reproduced the local govern¬ 
ment of their Anglo-Saxon ancestors (3). As they spread 
out from the first locations, they went in small companies, 

83. Why is water power “ the life of early manufactures f ” 



48 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Towns of New England, 1643. 


Map Questions.—Give the population of Massachusetts, Connecti¬ 
cut, and Rhode Island, in 1643. Name the towns of Connecticut. Of 
Rhode Island. Of Massachusetts. Of New Hampshire. Of Maine. 
How many years since the first landing at Plymouth ? (See map, p. 39.) 

chose a piece of land beside a stream, and built their houses 
near together. Every man had a small piece of farming 
land, but the outside land was the common pasture for the 
village cows. At regular times all the men assembled in 
“ town meeting,” and transacted the public business. In 

































NEW ENGLAND. 


49 


time, when the number of citizens became too great for this, 
they elected a board of “ selectmen,” who carried out the 
will of the town. Each town managed its own roads, 
schools, and churches, and took care of the common prop¬ 
erty. The town, therefore, was the political unit. 

85. [County and State Governments.—In 1643 Massachusetts was 
divided into four counties, but this division was chiefly for judicial 
purposes. The next distinct political institution above the towns was 
the colony government. In this government the towns were directly 
represented, and the representatives of the people always had control 
of taxation. Even a royal governor had to ask a colonial assembly 
for his salary. In the colony government we find the outline of the 
present states.] 

86. Union. —The common dangers from the encroach¬ 
ments of the Dutch, the hostility of the Indians, and the 
tyranny of the king, early suggested the benefits of a union. 
The matter was brought up by Connecticut, in 1637, imme¬ 
diately after the Pequod war. After thorough discussion a 
plan of confederation was adopted, in 1643, by representa¬ 
tives of the four governments of Massachusetts, Plymouth, 
Connecticut, and New Haven. The union was named the 
United Colonies of New England. Providence and Rhode 
Island desired membership, but were excluded, chiefly be¬ 
cause they would not consent to be under the control of 
Plymouth, which had claimed their land. 

[The names of the ablest and most prominent men of the colonies 
appear among the delegates to this convention. John Haynes was 
there from Connecticut, Theophilus Eaton from New Haven, Edward 
Winslow from Plymouth, and John Winthrop from Massachusetts, 
“ the honored governor of the colony.” The terms of agreement were 
very carefully considered. For managing all affairs of the whole con¬ 
federation, two commissioners, in church fellowship, were to be chosen 
by each colony, to meet annually at Boston, Hartford, New Haven, and 
Plymouth, in succession. The expense of all wars was to be shared in 
proportion to population, but each colony was to tax itself, in its own 
way, and the confederation had no right to interfere in the private 
affairs of any colony.] 

86. What is meant by “common dangers f” 

4-H 




50 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



87. This confederation is remarkable because it fore¬ 
shadowed the greater Union that was to come afterward. 
But it did not long endure. Massachusetts sought to con¬ 
trol it. “ So long as the confederacy acted in accordance 


John Winthrop. 

with the wishes of Massachusetts, all went well; but when 
she differed from the others, she was ready to dissolve the 
union rather than yield.” With the reign of James II. 
(1685) the union was abandoned. 

88. The conversion of the Indians was always announced 
as one of the chief purposes in planting the colonies. The 
ministers of New England labored diligently. Rev. John 



NEW ENGLAND. 


51 


Eliot, known as “the apostle Eliot,” learned their lan¬ 
guage, constructed an Indian grammar, and made a trans¬ 
lation of the Bible. He was successful in persuading many 
Indians to profess the Christian faith and to adopt the ways 
of living of the white men. In all this the influence of 
the chiefs and of the medicine men (priests) was generally 
against them. Christianity never spread beyond the settle¬ 
ments. 

89. [King Philip’s War, 1675-7. —The Indians knew that they were 
being crowded out of the land of their fathers. As a race they hated 
the whites, and causes for a quarrel were seldom lacking. Rumors 
reached the English that the Indians were preparing for war. Philip, 
chief of the Pokanokets, who lived on Narragansett Bay, was the mover. 
The punishment of several Indians for the murder of a traitor brought 
on the conflict known as King Philip’s War. It began with an attack 
on the town of Swansey, in 1675, and soon raged along the whole line 
of settlements. It lasted for two years, and is the long story of Indian 
massacre. No one in the outlying towns felt safe at any time. The 
Indians fought with the secrecy and fierceness of wild beasts. Some 
of them had obtained firearms from the traders, and were able to con¬ 
tend on more equal terms than they could do with arrows. At the end 
of the first year the Narragansetts joined Philip in the war. Large 
bands of white men sought out the Indians, and slaughtered them with¬ 
out mercy. Gradually the savages began to yield. Philip, deserted and 
friendless, was shot by a traitor Indian. The war ended in 1677, with 
the Pokanokets and Narragansetts nearly exterminated, and a loss to 
the English colonists of 600 men, and a dozen towns.] 

90. England and the Colonies. —All that the colonies 
wanted from England was to be let alone, and to be al¬ 
lowed to manage their own affairs. The contest between 
the House of Commons and the king (42) was especially 
favorable, because neither party had any time to meddle 
with America. The sympathy of Puritan New England 
was naturally with the Commons. During Cromwell’s time 
(41), New England maintained her independence. In 1652 
Massachusetts even took upon herself the right of coining 
money, always the sign of sovereign power. 

91. The Navigation Acts. —Every European nation that 


89. Make an analysis of King Philip's War. See the form on page 45. 




52 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


had colonies in America desired to gain wealth from them. 
When the English colonies in America became strong and 
productive, the British government passed laws known as 
the Navigation Acts, requiring the colonies to buy all their 
supplies in the British market, and to ship to England 
whatever products the English merchants cared to pur¬ 
chase. The first law was passed in 1651, under the man¬ 
agement of Cromwell (41), and chiefly to ruin the trade 
which Holland was building up with the English colonies. 
The second law was made in 1660, and simply for the pur¬ 
pose of enriching English merchants. These commercial 
laws were a great burden upon the colonies, especially upon 
New England, where business was most active. They were 
evaded in all the colonies, and gradually came to be re¬ 
garded as “ dead letters.” Smuggling was so common that 
it became a regular business. 

92. Changes under Charles II., King, 1660-1685.—When 
the commonwealth ended and Charles II. became king of 
Great Britain, the colonies recognized him as their king, 
and acted in his name. Connecticut, in 1662, got from him 
a charter confirming her self-established government. Un¬ 
der this charter Connecticut and New Haven colonies were 
united. A new charter for Rhode Island (1663) established 
religious freedom by the words, “ No person shall at any 
time hereafter be anyways called in question for any differ¬ 
ence of opinion in matters of religion.” The law officers 
of the crown having decided that Massachusetts had no 
jurisdiction over New Hampshire, the king made New 
Hampshire a royal province, in 1679, with a governor and 
a council appointed by him, and an assembly elected by 
the people. 

[New Hampshire was again united with Massachusetts in 1688, and 
again separated in 1691.] 

93. Massachusetts was especially hateful to many of the 
advisers of the king. But the colony acted carefully, and 


NEW ENGLAND. 


53 


prepared to resist any encroachments on her self-govern¬ 
ment. The people of New England, and especially of 
Massachusetts, were charged with aiming at independence. 
Charles II., a careless, good-natured, pleasure-loving king, 
was at last aroused. Repeated charges of disobedience on 
the part of Massachusetts resulted in punishment. In 1684 
an English court declared the charter of Massachusetts for¬ 
feited, and her right to govern herself revoked. 

94. James II., King, 1685-8, was determined to rule the 
colonies after his own will, regardless of charters or local 
governments. Sir Edmund Andros Was appointed gov¬ 
ernor of all New England, and was “ authorized to make 
laws, lay taxes, and control the militia of the country.” 
He was instructed to tolerate no printing press, and to en¬ 
courage the English Church. The charters of Connecticut 
and Rhode Island were suspended, and popular govern¬ 
ment was everywhere interrupted. 

95. [Charter Oak.— An¬ 

dros demanded the surrender 
of the Connecticut charter, 
first by letter and then in per¬ 
son. At Hartford he was met 
by the governor and council, 
and tradition tells that while 
a consultation was in progress 
in the evening, all the lights 
were suddenly put out. When 
they were relighted, the char¬ 
ter, which had been lying on 
the table, had disappeared. A Charter Oak. 

hollow oak tree near by, which is said to have been the hiding place for 
the precious document, was long preserved and gratefully remembered 
as the Charter Oak.] 

96. The Change in 1688—James II. lost his kingdom in 
1688, and Andros departed. Rhode Island and Connecticut 
resumed their charters and popular government.- Massa¬ 
chusetts hoped to regain her old liberties, but her magis¬ 
trates were not united. Some of them had come to fear the 




54 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


power of the people. William III., the new king, was no 
friend of democracy. The old charter was not restored, 
but, in 1691, a new government was formed. The king 
appointed the governor, his deputy, and secretary, and these 
appointed the higher judges. The governor could veto laws 
and dissolve the legislature. But his salary depended on 
the legislature, which managed all the taxes. The relig¬ 
ious test (69) for voters was exchanged for a property quali¬ 
fication. 

97. Quakers.—The narrow religious spirit of the seven¬ 
teenth century, whidh so controlled the government of Mas¬ 
sachusetts that a different sect could not live in the colony, 
found serious annoyance in the people called Quakers 
(146). This class began to come into New England about 
1656. The first that appeared at Boston were expelled, or 
shipped back to England. But this treatment was only 
an invitation to the most fanatical of the Quaker faith to 
come back again. The more the authorities of Massachu¬ 
setts cut off their ears, whipped them, and hanged their 
brethren, the more they rejoiced in the persecution, and 
continued their disturbances. But the people of Massachu¬ 
setts did not sympathize with the severe measures of the 
magistrates, the Quakers began to complain to the king, 
and the laws were modified. When the severe treatment 
ceased, the Quakers gave no further trouble. 

98. [Salem Witchcraft.— In 1692 there was a popular craze at the 
village of Salem, Massachusetts, which is known as the Salem witch¬ 
craft. A witch or a wizard is a person supposed to have made a bargain 
with the devil, giving a soul in exchange for some mysterious powers. 
Belief in witches used to be common all over the world, and the New 
England colonies had laws for their punishment as evil-minded per¬ 
sons. At Salem village, two young girls claimed that they were con¬ 
stantly pinched by hands that no one could see, and pricked by pins 
that no one could find. An old servant Avas accused of being the 
troubling witch. The affair came to be talked about. Some people 
said that the belief in witchcraft was .foolishness; others thought that 
there were witches, and began themselves to have mysterious troubles. 


NEW ENGLAND. 


55 


The ministers set themselves to catch the witches, and to punish as 
irreligious persons all who denied that there were any witches. The 
jails were soon full; twenty persons were hanged, and then the people 
came to their senses. Like other superstitions, the belief in witches has 
passed away. Samuel Parris, minister of Salem, and Cotton Mather, a 
minister of Boston, were the most active in arresting and condemning 
accused persons. They seem to have used the opportunity for punish¬ 
ing persons whom they considered their enemies.] 

99. Education. —One of the chief characteristics of the 
Puritan immigrants to America was their interest in gen¬ 
eral education. The public school system of the United 
States had its origin in New England. A law was made 
in 1642, for the Puritan congregations, that “none of the 
brethren shall suffer so much barbarism in their families 
as not to teach their children and apprentices so much 
learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English 
tongue.’ 5 Five years later the law declared that “every 
township having fifty families should appoint one to teach 
all children to read and write;” and when any town should 
increase to one hundred families, it should “ set up a gram¬ 
mar school, the master thereof being able to instruct youths 
so far as they may be fitted for the University.” 

100. [The “ University” was Harvard College, the oldest college in 
America. Founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts, as a colonial school, 
in 1638, it was always a popular institution. It was named for the Rev. 
John Harvard, who bequeathed £800 and his library towards its estab¬ 
lishment. Yale College, located at New Haven, dates from 1700. It is 
also named for an early benefactor, Elihu Yale, and is the third college 
of the United States in order of establishment.] 

101. Peace and Growth. —During the reigns of George I. 
and George II. (1714-60), Sir Robert Walpole was most of 
the time the Prime Minister. His policy was peaceful, and 
he had no desire to interfere with the colonies. Wars with 
other nations occupied the English government, and the 
navigation acts (91) were not enforced. The children and 
the grandchildren of New England’s settlers kept the power 
and the spirit of their ancestors. The hills and valleys of 
New England were the home of a strong and thrifty race. 


56 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER IX. 

1607-1660. 

VirOxInia and Maryland. 

For Explanation.—Gentlemen; libertines; dissensions; gorgeously; 
liveried; ostentation; nicotine; borough; burgess; royalists; feudal; 
representative; fashion; maize. 

To be Pronounced.—Chesa-peake; Chickahominy (chik-a-honVe- 
ne;) Pow-hat-an / ; Car-ri-bees'; Jean (zhon) Nicot (ne-koO; nie / c-tine. 

Outline of Paragraph 102.—Settlement of Virginia by London Com¬ 
pany, at Jamestown, 1607; first colony, 105; three ships; Commanders, 
Newport, Gosnold, Ratcliffe; one half— gentlemen; remainder —labor¬ 
ers, tradesmen, mechanics; few workers, many adventurers. 

[Make a similar outline of other 'paragraphs .] 



Early Settlements in Virginia and Maryland. 

Map Questions.—What settlements were made in Virginia and Ma¬ 
ryland between the years 1607 and 1660? Under what leaders? (See 
text.) Name the subsequent settlements prior to 1730, with date. 
Where is Kent Island ? What advantage did Virginia offer to early 
settlers ? In what part are mountains ? Compare their direction with 













VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND. 


57 


* that of the coast line. Count the rivers shown here. What waters 
make a peninsula of the land on which Jamestown and Williamsburg 
stood ? Find other peninsulas. 

102. The colony at Virginia dates from the settlement 
of Jamestown, in 1607, under the management of the Lon¬ 
don Company (57). The first band of colonists, numbering 
105 men, was brought to Chesapeake Bay in April, 1607, 
on three ships commanded by the experienced sailors, 
Christopher Newport, Bartholomew Gosnold (53), and John 
Ratcliffe. In the old list of the colonists more than half 
are put down as gentlemen; the remainder are classed as 
laborers, tradesmen, and mechanics. Captain John Smith, 
the most energetic man of the company, described them as 
“poor gentlemen, serving-men, and libertines.” Genuine 
workers were few, and adventurers many. 

103. Jamestown.—After exploring the James River, the 
company landed at Jamestown, May 13th, 1607, and a fort 
was commenced at once, but was not completed until the 
middle of June. The colony was poorly governed. The 
management had been intrusted to a board of seven coun¬ 
cilors. There was no harmony or energy of action, and 
factions divided the colony. Time that should have been 
spent in planting corn was wasted in gold hunting. For 
four years the colony trusted to supplies from England, and 
as a consequence there was often very little to eat. By Sep¬ 
tember of the first year fifty men, including Gosnold, had 
died. The hard times made the dissensions worse; only 
the courage and energy of Smith kept the colony from ruin. 

104. [Captain John Smith, the hero of the early colony, was at that 
time not twenty-eight years old, but he was quick-witted, and sound of 
judgment. While on a voyage up the Chickahominy, in search of corn, 
in December, he incurred the hostility of the Indians, and was taken 
prisoner, but was released on the promise that he would pay a ransom 
of “ two guns and a grindstone.” On his arrival at Jamestown he found 
the number of colonists reduced to forty.] 

105. The Colony Kept Alive.—In January supplies 


58 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


were brought by Newport, who made repeated voyages 
across the Atlantic, bringing to America food and fresh 
settlers, and taking home sassafras, tar, iron ore, and any¬ 
thing else that would take the place of the gold expected by 
the company, and repay them for their outlay. Smith was 
elected President of the Council in 1608, and for a year he 
had almost the entire control. He managed wisely, planted 
corn, and built defenses for Jamestown. 

106. Changes in Government.—Still the prospects of the 
colony were not encouraging. On the plea of improvement, 
in 1609, the company obtained an enlargement of their 
privileges, and appointed a governor for the colony, who 
had absolute authority. The first governor, Lord Dela¬ 
ware, did not arrive until 1610; and before his coming, 
Smith, the mainstay of the colony, had returned to En¬ 
gland. Delaware met the colonists at the mouth of the 
river, already embarked for England, having given up in 
despair. Lord Delaware came with servants, gorgeously 
liveried. But in spite of his ostentation, his rule was bene¬ 
ficial. Emigration to Virginia increased. Various gov¬ 
ernors were appointed by the company until 1624. At that 
time King James, displeased with the independence of the 
company, took back their charter, and the governors were 
thenceforth royal appointees. 

107. Indians.—The Jamestown settlement suffered an 
Indian attack during the first month of its existence, but 
got off with the loss of only one man. There was general 
hostility for seven years. An Indian girl was then the 
means of securing peace with the nearest tribes. 

108. Pocahontas was the well-featured and best beloved 
daughter of Powhatan, the chief of the Patowomekes. In 
1613 she was staying with her uncle Jopassus. With the 
bribe of a copper kettle, Argali, one of the colony leaders, 

106. What is meant by “ royal appointees 




Virginia and Maryland. 


59 


induced Jopassus to betray Pocahontas into his hands. 
An attempt was then made to extort from Powhatan a 
supply of corn, and a surrender of some English captives, in 
exchange for his daughter. The Indian king was defiant. 
His village was destroyed, and his daughter retained. A 
widowed colonist, John Rolf, became interested in Poca¬ 
hontas; and, the attachment being mutual, they were mar¬ 
ried (April, 1614). .The English thereupon enjoyed the 
good will of the father, Powhatan, and peace with his tribe 
for the rest of his life. 

[Two years after her marriage, Pocahontas accompanied her hus¬ 
band to England, where she received much attention, and was pre¬ 
sented at Court. Preparing to return to Virginia, in 1617, she died at the 
age of twenty-two. While she was in England, Captain Smith told the 
following story of his captivity in the first year of the colony. The sav¬ 
ages had decided to kill him, and the executioners stood ready to beat 
out his brains. But “ Pocahontas, Powhatan’s dearest daughter, when 
no entreaty could prevail, took his head in her armes, and laid her own 
upon his to save him from death: whereat the Emperor was contented 
he should live to make him hatchets.” This story, published by Smith 
in his “ General Historie,” in 1624, has been accepted as true, but it is 
rendered doubtful by other writers, as well as by the previous words of 
Smith himself.] 

109. The culture of tobacco, commenced in 1612, became 
the source of wealth and prosperity in Virginia, and exerted 
a controlling influence in the future of the colony. Tobacco 
was more profitable than anything else. It w r as made the 
currency of the colony, passing at the rate of three shillings 
per pound for first quality, and eighteen pence for second 
quality. The church was supported and public officers 
were paid by a tax on tobacco. 

[Tobacco is a native of America. Columbus found tobacco smoking 
common among the natives of the islands. The Carribbees called their 
pipes “ tabak,” and the Spaniards applied the name to the plant. Seeds 
were sent to Spain. In 1559 Jean Nicot, Minister of France in Portu¬ 
gal, made the plant known in France, and from his name came the 
word “ nicotine.” Tobacco was carried to England, in 1560, by Sir 
Francis Drake, and its use was made popular by Raleigh.] 

109. How much money of United States currency is three English shil¬ 
lings? Eighteen pence? 



60 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


110. The first Legislature in America was held in 
Jamestown in 1619. The settled region now extending 
outward from Jamestown oyer the broad river lands of Vir¬ 
ginia, was divided into eleven districts or boroughs, after 
the fashion of the English counties; and two representa¬ 
tives elected from each borough, together with the governor 
and his council, made the first Virginia House of Bur¬ 
gesses. Measures were taken for the erecting of a Univer¬ 
sity, and for the education of English children. The House 
of Burgesses remained the law-making power of Virginia. 
All taxpayers could vote for its members. 

111. Religion was established in accordance with the 
Church of England by the first House of Burgesses; but 
there was no trouble about church parties until 1642. 
Then Puritans came from Massachusetts as missionaries, 
and raised opposition. A law was passed that “ all non¬ 
conformists (40) shall be compelled to depart the colony 
with all convenience.” 

112. Puritan Rule.—Virginia was loyal to Charles I. to 
the end, and expressed sorrow and indignation at his 
“murder.” Many royalists found an asylum in Virginia 
during the years of the Commonwealth (41). Cromwell 
compelled the submission of the colony, and Sir William 
Berkeley, the royalist governor, was superseded. The self- 
government of Virginia grew strong under Puritan rule. 

[In 1648 the population consisted of 15,000 whites and 300 negro 
slaves. Domestic animals were abundant; corn, wheat, rice, hemp, 
flax, and many vegetables were cultivated; there were fifteen varieties 
of fruit, and excellent wine was made. The average export of tobacco 
for several years had been 1,500,000 pounds.] 

Maryland. 

113. George Calvert, Baron of Baltimore, a Catholic 
nobleman, was a favorite of James I., and a shrewd and 
wealthy man. He owned land in Newfoundland, and tried 
to make a settlement there, but desiring a warmer climate, 
he visited Virginia in 1628. Returning to England he 


VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND. 


61 


drew up a charter, giving to himself and heirs the present 
territory of Maryland and Delaware. Before this charter 
received the signature of the king, Calvert died. 

114. The Charter, however, was given to George Cal¬ 
vert’s son Cecil, who carried out his father’s plan. The 
charter was framed on feudal principles, and made Calvert 
almost an independent monarch with respect to England. 
Simply two Indian arrows were to be sent annually to the 
King of England in token of allegiance. All subjects of 
England were free to settle in Maryland, and the charter 
guaranteed them the rights of Englishmen. The people 
were to tax themselves, through a representative assembly 
like that of Virginia. Maryland was a proprietary colony, 
being under the control of Lord Baltimore and his heirs. 

115. [Religious toleration was the important feature of Maryland. 
Calvert being a Catholic, wanted to make a home for Catholics; the 
English government being Protestant, would, of course, never consent 
to the exclusion of Protestants. The words of the charter were indefi¬ 
nite, simply prohibiting any interpretation “ whereby God’s holy and 
true Christian religion may in anywise suffer change, prejudice, or 
diminution,” but the general practice of the colony allowed the free 
exercise of every religion.] 

116. First Arrival.—In 1634 Calvert’s ship arrived in 
the Potomac, with the two brothers of Calvert, u twenty 
other gentlemen of very good fashion, and three hundred 
laboring men, well provided with all things . v Calvert had 
taken advantage of the experience of Virginia, and selected 
colonists of the right sort. The Virginians, loyal to the 
wishes of the king, received the new-comers courteously, 
and promised to provide a stock of fruit trees and domestic 
animals. The new-comers located near the mouth of the 
Potomac, and called the place St. Mary’s. 

117. Maryland and Virginia.—A quarrel for the pos¬ 
session of Kent Island, in the Chesapeake, and the country 
east of the bay, created and for a long time kept up ill 
feeling between the Marylanders and the Virginians, some 


62 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


of whom had settled on the island beforethe charter of Ma¬ 
ryland was granted. William Clayborne, the most bitter 
opponent of the Marylanders, claimed to own Kent Island, 
and resisted the Maryland authorities with an armed force. 
The title of Maryland, east of the Chesapeake Bay, was 
not fully established until 1646. 

[The territory of Maryland was part of the grant to the Virginia 
company; but that company having been dissolved, the king thought 
it right to bestow the unoccupied land upon new favorites. The Vir¬ 
ginia claims were based upon the rights of settlers under the original 
company.] 

118. Churches and Schools.—Among the early settlers 
of Maryland, there were people of all the churches, but the 
majority were Catholics. There was no great activity in 
building churches. The proprietor received a large reve¬ 
nue from the sale and rent of lands, but he never helped to 
build churches or schools. Education in the early colony 
was very backward. 

119. The Indians were friendly to the first colonists, 
teaching the men to hunt, and the women to make bread 
from maize. The Jesuit priests (176) instructed the In¬ 
dians, and established the only Catholic mission in the 
English colonies. Their influence probably helped to keep 
the Indians friendly, for Maryland seems never to have had 
any serious Indian troubles. 

120. The first Maryland Assembly met in 1637. The 
colony was laid off into counties like those of Virginia. 
There were no restrictions to the right to vote. A consid¬ 
erable number of Puritans settled at Providence. There 
was a stormy time during the English civil war, and the 
Puritan element had to be allowed to manage the colony 
during the Commonwealth (41). But the mixture of reli¬ 
gions prevented persecution or exclusion, and Catholics and 
Protestants continued to live side by side, no church mo¬ 
lested by another. 

[In 1660 the population of Maryland was about 12,000.] 


SOUTHERN COLONIES. 


63 


CHAPTER X. 

1660-1750. 

Southern Colonies. 

For Explanation.—Barony; manor; bankrupt; immigration; com¬ 
mission; retaliate; Salzburgers; menace; evasion; siege; insurrec¬ 
tion; itinerant. 

To be Pronounced.—Chowan (cho-wan 7 ); O 7 gle-thorpe; Berkeley 
(berk 7 le); Shaftsbury (shafs / ber-re); Salzburgers (salts 7 burg-ers); Da¬ 
rien (da/re-en). 



Map Work.—Copy diagram, and fill out with 
eight settlements in order of date: 


Date. 

Settlement. 

Present State. 

1670. 

Old Charleston . . . 

South Carolina. 


What part of the Carolinas are mountainous? 
Were there any hindrances to early travel from 
Virginia southward ? Why did the first settlers 
locate near the coast or on some river ? In what 
way did Georgia check the extension of Spanish 
settlement? What reasons can you find why 
the same ways of living should prevail from 
Virginia southward? 


North Carolina. 

121. Offshoot 
from Virginia.— 

Virginia, firstborn 
of England’s col¬ 
onies, was the pa¬ 
rent of North Caro¬ 
lina. As soon as 
Virginia gained a 
firm footing, strag¬ 
glers began travel¬ 
ing southward and 
penetrated the for¬ 
ests of the Cho¬ 
wan River. The 
first regular settle¬ 
ments were made 
along the Chowan 
River as early as 
1653, under the 
authority of Vir¬ 
ginia. Charles II., 
after his restora¬ 
tion to the English 


















64 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


throne, wanted to reward his friends; and in 1663 he gave 
the land of North and South Carolina, westward to the 
“ South Sea,” to a company of his noble supporters. These 
proprietors spread invitations to settlers, and, with the help 
of Governor Berkeley (134), a government was set agoing 
like that of Virginia. 

122. The Fundamental Constitutions.—The most active 
of the proprietors, the great Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1669, 
had his friend John Locke, a great English philosopher, 
draw up a plan for a government. This document, known 
as the “fundamental constitutions,” was an attempt to 
revive the worn out forms of feudalism upon the fresh soil 
of America. There were to be baronies and manors, and 
all the divisions of a land-owning aristocracy. It was folly 
to expect such classes among people engaged in clearing 
forests for corn fields, and in fighting off Indians. But the 
wisdom of the philosopher did not understand the life of 
the pioneer. Religious freedom was guaranteed, and that 
was the one good thing in these constitutions. 

123. The Government.—The proprietors sent a great 
many governors from England, who tried to establish a 
government on Locke’s plan, but their attempts resulted in 
quarrels and confusion. The only real government was 
that of the assembly, composed of representatives elected 
by the land owners. 

124. The Progress of North Carolina was very slow. 
Its political history is full of bad government and unjust 
laws. Its population was lawless and reckless, for it re¬ 
ceived many of the worst elements of Virginia. Virgin¬ 
ians complained that it was the refuge of bankrupts and 
escaped criminals. It received additions from New En¬ 
gland, and also Quakers, fresh elements of discord (97). 
A colony of Swiss founded Newbern in 1711. 

125. Division.—The original territory being thought too 


SOUTHERN COLONIES. 


65 


large for one government, was divided into two counties, 
called Albemarle and Clarendon, which finally became 
North and South Carolina. These had each an assembly 
and a separate government most of the time. In 1729 the 
proprietors, tired of sending governors to the Carolinas to 
quarrel with the people, sold their rights to the king, who 
sent out the governors thereafter. North and South Caro¬ 
lina, as royal provinces, date from 1729. 

South Carolina. 

126. The first settlement was made on the Ashley River, 
at Old Charlestown, in 1670. Ten years later the settle¬ 
ment was moved to a better location, at the junction of the 
Ashley and Cooper Rivers, and the name of the place after¬ 
wards came to be Charleston. It was the capital of the 
colony, and a flourishing town. Many French Protestants 
came to South Carolina. Their immigration was not con¬ 
fined to South Carolina, but she received the largest num¬ 
ber, and they formed afterwards some of her leading 
families. Scotch, Irish, and Germans also were among 
the settlers of South Carolina. 

127. The early life of South Carolina, like that of her 
northern sister, was turbulent and lawless. The people had 
the same quarrels with the governors, and both maintained 
the right to make their own laws. They were much an¬ 
noyed by pirates, many of whom made their headquarters 
at Charleston, and thence attacked Spanish commerce in 
the West Indies. The Spaniards retaliated with inroads 
upon the English settlements. Finally a new neighbor on 
the south served as a protection to South Carolina. 

Georgia. 

128. The Purpose.—From the troubles with the Span¬ 
iards, attention was early directed to the land lying 
between the Savannah and the Spanish settlements in 

5-H 


66 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Florida, but no settlements were made until after the Caro- 
linas had become royal provinces. Some of the colonies, 
as Virginia and New York (141), were founded for com¬ 
mercial gain. Others, as Massachusetts and Pennsylvania 
(145), to secure asylums for peculiar religions. Georgia 
owes its foundation to charity. 

129. [James Oglethorpe was a brave soldier, “ sprung from an 
ancient family, which had sacrificed both life and fortune in the cause 
of the Stuarts” (42). He was also an honest, kind-hearted man, and 
devoted himself to a generous enterprise. While he was in Parliament 
his attention was called to the wretched condition of men imprisoned 
for debt, according to the law of that time. He was appointed a com¬ 
missioner to investigate the condition of the jails, and he persevered, 
until, “from extreme misery he restored to light and freedom multi¬ 
tudes who, by long confinement for debt, were strangers and helpless 
in the country of their birth.” More than this, he formed a plan of 
making a home in America for these unfortunates.] 

130. The Plan.—A Board of Trustees was formed, with 
power to govern and defend the colony. The liberties of 
English citizens were guaranteed, and freedom of religion 
to all except Papists. The trustees had high hopes for 
their scheme. A company of thirty-five families went with 
Oglethorpe as governor, and began a settlement at Savan¬ 
nah in 1733. Augusta was laid out in 1735. 

131. The management of Oglethorpe was energetic and 
wise. Treaties were made with the Indians, houses were 
built, and everything prospered under his care. Immi¬ 
grants came from many places. Salzburgers, persecuted 
for their religion, settled at Ebenezer. A Scotch colony 
was located at Darien. The trustees attempted to exclude 
rum and slaves from the colony; but the colonists did not 
quietly submit. The law against rum was a source of con¬ 
tinual trouble and corruption, and was repealed in 1742. 
There was a growing demand for slaves, and after Ogle¬ 
thorpe had returned to England, in 1743, there was open 

128. For what religion was Massachusetts the asylum? Pennsylvania? 



SOUTHERN COLONIES. 


67 


evasion of the law excluding them. At last, in 1749, the 
trustees gave way, and admitted slavery. 

132. [The Spaniards.—The hostility of Spaniards in Florida was a 
long standing menace. War with Spain was formally declared by En¬ 
gland in 1739. This war was still in progress when, in 1744, a war known 
as “The War for the Austrian Succession,” involved the nations of 
Europe in a general conflict (180). In 1740 Oglethorpe led a fruitless 
expedition against St. Augustine* But he successfully resisted a Span¬ 
ish invasion two years later, saving Georgia and South Carolina to En¬ 
gland by gallant fighting and shrewd generalship.] 

133. A Royal Province.—The trustees became disap¬ 
pointed. Their grand hopes had not been realized. In 
1752 they resigned their charter to the king. A govern¬ 
ment was established, similar to that of other royal prov¬ 
inces, as Virginia and the Carolinas. 

The Southern Group. 

134. The Restoration in Virginia.—The influence of the 
Restoration of Charles II. (41) checked the growth of the 
democratic government in Virginia. Large numbers of 
cavaliers, the supporters of Charles I. against the Com¬ 
mons in the Puritan Revolution in England (42), had 
emigrated to Virginia, when the Commons triumphed. 
They strengthened the old feeling in Virginia against Puri¬ 
tans. Virginia rejoiced when Charles II. was crowned. 
Berkeley, the cavalier leader of the colony, was reelected 
governor by the Virginians, and he was continued in the 
office by the king. The royalist, or cavalier party, now in 
the bloom of reviving prosperity, was disposed to go to ex¬ 
tremes. The House of Burgesses gave the governor and 
his council the right to levy the taxes for three years. 
The Church of England was declared reestablished, and 
severe laws were made against non-conformists. Worse 
than all this for Virginia, the government of Charles II. 
passed and proceeded to enforce the Navigation Acts (91), 
which made tobacco worth less, and all imported goods cost 
more. No elections were allowed, and the royalist House 


68 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


of Burgesses was continued by adjournment from time to 
time. Would Virginians endure such treatment? 

135. [The Virginians.—Tarn to the 
map of Virginia and count the rivers that 
divide the land between Blue Ridge and 
Chesapeake Bay. With abundant water, 
a rich soil, a warm climate, and the to¬ 
bacco plant, Virginia offered easy wealth 
to all who should own land. There was 
no staying together in towns for the first 
settlers. Laws were passed for building 
towns, but laws cannot make towns when 
people will not live in them. In 1660, 
even Jamestown had only a state house, 
one church, eighteen houses, and a dozen 
families. Over the broad land of Vir¬ 
ginia, well watered and wooded, the first 
settlers spread, taking up land to' their 
liking, “ not minding anything but to be 
masters of great tracts.” These were the 
plantations. The planters built their 
homes on the river banks; ships came 
to their doors for the crops of tobacco 
which Europe, Asia, and Africa were 
ready to buy, and returning ships brought 
whatever the planters needed of manu¬ 
factured articles, and also what they 
The Cavalier. desired most, cheap labor. Men con¬ 

demned to servitude for a number of years, vagrants picked up in the 
streets of London, were shipped to Virginia, and their labor sold to the 
planters; and the children of Africa were enslaved to cultivate tobacco 
in Virginia and the Carolinas.] 

136. Loyalty and Independence.—The Virginians of 
1670 were chiefly native to the land. From childhood they 
had lived amid the freedom of a new land, and the inde¬ 
pendence of pioneers. Wealth could make the planters 
aristocratic; as Englishmen and churchmen they were loyal 
to the Stuart kings (41), but as Virginians they would not 
submit to tyranny. Still they lacked the power and the 
means of organization. There were no schools and few 
educated men. They had neither a newspaper nor a print- 




SOUTHERN COLONIES. 


69 


ing press. The rivers and woods impeded land communica¬ 
tions. They did not take the trouble to build either roads 
or bridges, but traveled either by boats or on horseback, 
following the paths through the woods and swimming the 
rivers. The Virginians could not keep up a steady, perse¬ 
vering, well planned effort to throw off oppression. They 
had the spirit to act, but they needed a leader to direct 
their movements. 

137. [Insurrection.—Trouble arose with the Maryland Indians in 
1675, some of whom crossed the Potomac and attacked Virginia planta¬ 
tions. Governor Berkeley did nothing to protect the settlements, and 
even disbanded troops that had gathered against the savages. The 
people, left by their governor exposed to the Indian attacks, found a 
leader in Nathaniel Bacon, a young Englishman, “ brave, rich, eloquent, 
well meaning, apparently ambitious, but certainly far from wise.” 
Bacon led a band of volunteers against the Indians, but Berkeley pro¬ 
claimed him and his followers rebels. Then followed a general upris¬ 
ing of the southern counties against the governor, who was finally 
compelled to commission Bacon as military commander. But even 
when Bacon was fighting the Indians, the old governor, never forget¬ 
ting his hatred of an enemy, again proclaimed him a rebel and a traitor. 
Bacon and his followers laid siege to Jamestown, but the flight of Berke¬ 
ley left them the masters of the capital. A council of war decided to 
burn the place, that its fortifications might not again give protection to 
the enemy. Thus was destroyed the only town of Virginia, sixty-nine 
years after its foundation. Only ruins now mark the foundation of 
Jamestown. Williamsburg became the capital. Soon after the burn¬ 
ing of Jamestown, Bacon died of malarial fever, and his followers, left 
without a leader, scattered. Berkeley resumed his office, and gratified 
his revenge by hanging all the rebels he could catch. This insurrection 
is known as “ Bacon’s Rebellion.” On the whole, it was disastrous to 
Virginia, for it checked the development of her popular government. 
Berkeley was removed, and governors followed who devoted them¬ 
selves to money making.] 

138. Education.—Through the influence of James Blair, 
an active, energetic Scotchman, a charter was gained for 
William and Mary College in 1699. Maryland established 
a free school at Annapolis in 1696. The rank of a college 
could not have been very high, for there was almost an en¬ 
tire lack of preparatory schools. Education was very back- 


70 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


ward throughout the entire South. The poor had almost 
none at all, and private tutors were depended on for the 
children of the rich. In Maryland a law was passed in 
1728, requiring free schools in every county; but they were 
kept under the influence of the church, and never pros¬ 
pered. There was no system of public schools in Virginia 
until after 1776. North Carolina had no schools until just 
before independence (274). In South Carolina there was 
no general education until afterwards, but the sons of the 
wealthy received good educations in Europe. In Georgia 
itinerant schoolmasters, who were loose characters and fre¬ 
quently intemperate, did most of the teaching. 

[State Universities were established in the South after independence.] 

139. The Church.—Except in Maryland, the majority of 
the settlers in the southern colonies were in sympathy with 
the Church of England, and in them this church was estab¬ 
lished by law and supported by taxes. The establishment 
was made in Maryland, also, in 1692, and the Catholics, 
who had founded the colony, were put under restriction. 
South of Virginia there was no very energetic suppression 
of non-conforming churches. 

140. [Rich and Poor.—Agriculture, the life of the South, tended to 
the production of a few staples, as tobacco and cotton, and these, with 
slave labor, divided the freemen into classes of rich and poor. The rich 
lived in easy luxury, while the poor fell into rough habits. But in rich 
and poor alike there was a spirit of freedom even to lawlessness.] 


MIDDLE COLONIES. 


71 


CHAPTER XI. 

1609-1750. 

Middle Colonies. 

For Explanation.—Rival; treason; nominal; era; signal; reprieved; 
imperious; devised; artisans; turbulent. 

To be Pronounced.—Gus-ta'vus; Christina (kris-tee'na); Leisler 
(Lis'ler); Sloughter (slower); Courant (koo-rant 7 ). 


Outline of Paragraph 141.—Hudson, an English sailor serving Hol¬ 
land, discovers Hudson River; Dutch locate on Manhattan Island at 
mouth of river, calling settlement New Amsterdam; West India Com¬ 
pany organized with monopoly of trade; founder of colony of fifty per¬ 
sons entitled to estate of sixteen miles on the Hudson; Indian claims 
paid for; settlers called patroons; only great rivals of English settlers. 

[Make a similar outline of other paragraphs.] 

New York. 

141. Foundation by the Dutch.—Henry Hudson, an En¬ 
glish sailor in the service of Holland, and in search of a 
northwest passage, discovered, in 1609, the river named for 
him. The Dutch, realizing the fine opportunity for Indian 
trade afforded by the Hudson and the harbor at its mouth, 
soon made a location on Manhattan Island. This trading 
post grew into a settlement which, in 1623, received the 
name of New Amsterdam. A great company, called the 
West India Company, was formed in Holland, having a 
monopoly of the trade; and any member founding a colony 
of fifty persons, received a right to an estate with a river 
frontage on the Hudson of sixteen miles. The Indian 
claims were paid for. 

[These great land owners were known as patroons, and were the an¬ 
cestors of the noted Dutch families of New York. The Dutch were the 
only formidable rivals to the English colonies on the Atlantic coast.] 

142. Capture by the English.—King Charles II., claim¬ 
ing the land for England, and wishing to injure the growing 




72 


HISTORY OF THE UNITER STATES. 


power of Holland, gave all 
the Dutch territory to his 
brother James, Duke of 
York, afterwards James 
II. In 1664 an English 
fleet appeared before the 
town of New Amsterdam. 
No preparation for resist¬ 
ance had been made. 
The Dutch government 
had been entirely in the 
interest of the great com¬ 
pany, with no regard for 
the people. The English 
commander promising lib¬ 
erty and representative 
government, easily gained 
possession. The Dutch 
governor and his soldiers 
sailed for Holland. New 
Amsterdam became New 
York. English laws were 
introduced, but the easy 
Dutch customs generally 
prevailed. 

Middle Colonies. [In 1673 England and Hoi- 

Map Questions.— Write the settle- land being at war, the Dutch 
ments in the order of their date, by the recaptured New York; but the 
following Model: following year possession was 

--returned to the English.] » 



Place. 


Date. 


Present 

State. 


By What 

Nation. What are the natural ap- 
(See Text.) proaches to the interior of New 
York? of Pennsylvania? To 
what territory is Delaware nat¬ 
urally joined? From how many directions was New Jersey easily ap¬ 
proachable? What reasons can you find for a commercial center at 
New York? 














MIDDLE COLONIES. 


73 



New Jersey. 


143. The Territory of New Jersey was first settled by 
the Dutch from New York, and passed with New York into 

the possession of 
the English in 
1664. The Duke 
of York gave it 
to Lord Berkeley 
and Sir George 
Carteret. These 
proprietors estab¬ 
lished a govern¬ 
ment composed 
of a Governor, a 
Council appoint¬ 
ed by themselves, 
and an Assembly 
chosen by the col¬ 
onists. 

144. Towns 

were started rap¬ 
idly, the first 
being Elizabeth¬ 
town, by Puri- 
A Dutch House. tans in 1664, 

Newark in 1666, by people from Connecticut, and Burling¬ 
ton in 1667, by Quakers. The Puritan element was strong, 
and left its impression on the early laws. 


[With New York, New Jersey went over to the Dutch, in 1673, and 
again to the English the following year.] 


Pennsylvania. 


145. The early history of Pennsylvania centers around 
the life of the man whose name was given to the province. 
William Penn had a large claim against the English govern- 










74 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



ment, inherited 
from his father, 
who had been 
a brave com¬ 
mander. His 
only chance for 
pay was to take 
land in Amer¬ 
ica. A tract of 
40,000 square 
miles was giv¬ 
en to William 
Penn, in 1681, 
and christened 
by King Charles 
“ Pennsylvania” 
(Penn’s forest 
country). Penn 
was a Quaker, a 
man of ability 
William Penn. and high aims. 

His scheme was to found a government in accordance with 
Quaker principles. “ Perfect liberty of conscience was guar¬ 
anteed to all. Capital punishment was to he inflicted only 
for murder and treason; and other penalties were to be 
imposed for reformation, and not for revenue. Trial by 
jury was assured not only to white men, but to Indians.” 
The liberal principles of Penn’s government, and his offer 
of land, at forty shillings for 100 acres, attracted Quakers 
in large numbers, and other settlers, from all over Europe. 


146. [Quakers were a religious sect, calling themselves “ Friends,” 
founded by George Fox, in England, in the seventeenth century. They 
believed in the natural nobleness of humanity, and that conscience is 
the true guide of conduct. Fox taught that doctors should have no 
more quarrels, but study the laws of life; that lawyers should give up 
tricks, and not try to shield a guilty man; that preachers should find 


MIDDLE COLONIES. 


75 


the highest truth in the purity of conscience. The Quakers believed in 
an Inner Light, which was regarded as a true inspiration and revela¬ 
tion. This belief easily turned weak-minded persons into the fanatics 
who troubled the solemn Elders of Massachusetts Bay (97). One notice¬ 
able habit was simplicity of speech and dress. They refused to take an 
oath, or to serve as soldiers.] 

147. Foundation of the Colony.—Penn himself went out 
with a company of 100, in 1682, made a famous treaty of 
peace with the Indians, and laid out the city of Phila¬ 
delphia in 1683. Immigration was very rapid. In one 
year, 7,000 are said to have been received. At the end of 
the century, the population is estimated at over 20,000. 
Chester, the oldest town in Pennsylvania, had been founded 
by Swedes in 1643. 

148. [Philadelphia means “brotherly love,” the great idea of the 
Quakers. The city was laid out on the checker-board pattern, now so uni¬ 
versal in the United States, and its streets were kept clean and orderly.] 

149. [Penn’s Treaty.—Penn met the Indians under a large elm tree, 
the location of which is now marked by a monument. “We meet,” 
said Penn, “ on the broad pathway of good faith, and good will; no ad¬ 
vantage shall be taken on either side, but all shall be openness and love. 
We are the same as if one man’s body were to be divided into two 
parts; we are all one flesh and blood.” The chiefs were touched by his 
honest and kindly words. “We will live in love with William Penn 
and his children,” they replied, “ as long as the sun and moon shall 
shine.” This treaty was never broken. It is even said that no drop of 
Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian.] 

150. Troubles arose in the colony, between the Quaker 
element and those not of that sect. Penn was in disfavor 
in England after the accession of William and Mary, in 
1688, and charges of misgovernment caused the office of 
governor to be taken from him in 1693. Having acquitted 
himself of the charges, he gained his province again the fol¬ 
lowing year. The proprietorship of the province remained 
in the family of Penn until American Independence. The 
legislative department continued as first planned by him, 
and was as democratic as any in New England. There 
was, however, continual discord between the governor ap¬ 
pointed by the proprietor, and the assembly chosen by the 
people. 


76 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Delaware. 

151. Three nations contended for the little territory of 
Delaware. The Dutch were the first to settle, establishing, 
in 1623, a trading post only. Their possession was nomi¬ 
nal. The next were the Swedes. Gustavus Adolphus, the 
great ruler of Sweden, hoped to found colonies in America. 
His plans were carried on after his death, and, in 1638, a 
settlement was made near the site of Wilmington, and a 
fort built, called Fort Christina. The English attempted 
to come in from Virginia, but the Dutch and Swedes united 
against them. Having expelled the English, the Dutch 
and Swedes struggled with each other. The Swedes were 
overpowered, and in 1655 the Dutch ruled supreme from 
Delaware to New York. In 1664 the Delaware settlements 
gave way to English rule, and Delaware became an ap¬ 
pendage to New York, until it passed into the hands of 
Penn, in 1682, and formed thereafter a part of his province. 
Under the government of Penn, Delaware prospered. 

Middle Colonies to 1750. 

152. Government of the Restoration.—We have seen 
the effects on the older colonies of the rule of Charles II. 
and his friends (93, 134). The colonies in the middle 
group also felt the evils of the plan of government through 
men appointed by the king, and responsible to him alone. 
The English revolution of 1688 formed an era in the his¬ 
tory of all the colonies then founded. The exclusion of the 
bigoted tyrant, James II., from England, and the accession 
of William and Mary, was a signal of fresh hope for the 
growing democracies of America. But they were doomed 
to disappointment, for the revolution in England was an 
aristocratic, and not a democratic movement. 

153. [Popular Movement in New York.—In spite of the promises of 
the English commander at the time of the Dutch surrender, no colony 
suffered more under the Stuart plan of government than New York. 
The champion of the popular party was Jacob Leisler, a native of Ger- 


MIDDLE COLONIES. 


77 


many. On several occasions he had headed resistance against Andros 
(98) and his associates. When news of the downfall of James II. 
reached New York, Leisler, as the leader of the people’s party, was made 
lieutenant-governor by a “committee of safety,” chosen from several 
towns and the city. He addressed letters to the leaders of the neigh¬ 
boring colonies, in the name of the friends of William and Mary, and 
was advised to act with caution. But he was hot-headed, and his treat¬ 
ment of opponents was severe. In outside matters he did better, and 
was active in defending the frontier from the Indians and the French. 
In 1691, Sloughter, a worthless drunkard, received a royal appointment 
as governor, and the enemies of Leisler sought revenge. He had re¬ 
sisted English troops, and with others was arrested, tried, and found 
guilty of treason. Sloughter reprieved them until the king’s will should 
be learned. But Leisler’s foes were not satisfied, and persuaded Slough¬ 
ter, while drunk, to sign the death warrants of Leisler and his son-in- 
law, who had been his chief aid. They were immediately hanged. 
Leisler’s death was legal; nevertheless, it was a political murder, 
prompted by revenge. It created bitter parties in New York, whose 
strife lasted for many years.] 

154. Pirates.—New York harbor at this time (1692), 
was the shelter of a gang of pirates. Fletcher, the cor¬ 
rupt successor of Sloughter, was in league with them, sold 
them licenses, and is said to have shared their plunder. 
A plan was formed in England to suppress piracy by 
making recaptures. Bellomont, the next governor of New 
York, was one of the movers. Severe measures finally put 
a stop to piracy in American waters about 1723. 

155. [Captain Kidd.—Bellomont commissioned the famous Captain 
Kidd, a Scotch sailor, to capture pirates. Kidd sailed for Madagascar, 
then the nest of pirates, and was gone a long time. Finally the word 
reached England that he had turned pirate himself. When at last he 
came back to America, he was arrested and sent to England, and there 
hanged in 1701, for murder and piracy. On his return, he had buried 
his spoils on Long Island. These were recovered by Governor Bello¬ 
mont ; nevertheless there grew a popular story that Kidd had buried 
vast amounts of gold and jewels somewhere on the shore of New En¬ 
gland or Long Island, and many a fortune seeker has dreamed of find¬ 
ing the treasure of Kidd, but has dug for it in vain.] 

156. Walpole’s Administration.—The system of man¬ 
aging the colonies through governors appointed by the 
English king, begun by Charles II. and continued by his 


78 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


successors, caused the same quarrels in all the colonies, 
and yielded the same story of imperious demands by the 
ambitious governors, and stubborn resistance by colonial 
assemblies. Under the easy administration of Walpole 
(101) the Middle Colonies, together with the others, pros¬ 
pered and were at peace. 

157. Quakers and Military Service—The Quaker ele¬ 
ment in Pennsylvania, in accordance with the principles of 
the sect, refused to do military service, no matter what the 
danger on the outside. This refusal was a cause of trouble 
until 1744, when Benjamin Franklin devised and set in 
order a system of volunteer service. 

158. [Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was born in Boston, where his 
father, originally a dyer, was carrying on the business of candle and 
soap making. He was the youngest son of a very large family. Asa 
boy he had some instruction at school, but at the age of ten was put 
to work, first with his father, then with an older brother, who had a 
printing office, and published a newspaper, the “New England Cour- 
ant.” Benjamin did not prosper with his brother, and at the age of 
seventeen, he struck out for New York, and then for Philadelphia. 
Here he arrived with only one dollar in his pocket, and no friends in 
the city. He found employment as a printer, and later on became the 
publisher of the “Pennsylvania Gazette,” and one of the most influen¬ 
tial citizens of Philadelphia. He was distinguished for practical com¬ 
mon sense, as well as for superior intellect. As an able writer, a clear 
thinker, a wise statesman, and a noble patriot, Franklin deserves to be 
well known to all the boys and girls in the United States. (See portrait 
of Franklin, Chapter XVII.)] 

159. People and Occupations.—The descendants of the 
Dutch settlers formed a large part of the people of New 
York, but in time they acquired the English language and 
adopted English customs. The people of New Jersey were 
mostly English. Pennsylvania received a large non-En¬ 
glish immigration during the first half of the eighteenth 
century. Germans were the most numerous, Irish next; 
together they outnumbered the English settlers. They fur¬ 
nished many excellent citizens—farmers and artisans, but 
shiftless and turbulent elements as well. Agriculture was, 


MIDDLE COLONIES. 


79 


of course, the great dependence, and the climate allowed a 
greater variety of crops than in the south, while the excel¬ 
lence of the soil gave a greater profit than in New En¬ 
gland. Pennsylvania exported grain, and manufactured 
paper, glass, and cloth. New York and Philadelphia were 
centers of thriving and growing commerce. 

160. Education.—The Dutch early established schools 
in New York, partly supported by the government. These 
declined under the English mastery, except in the city. 
There Columbia College, first called King’s College, was 
founded in 1754, but being in the interest of the Church 
of England, it was not a general favorite. New Jersey had 
schools in the towns of New England origin (144). The 
Presbyterians established the College of New Jersey in 
1746, the fourth in age in the United States. Located first 
at Elizabethtown, it was moved to Princeton in 1757, and 
is frequently called Princeton College. In Pennsylvania 
and Delaware, schools in the rural districts were poor, some¬ 
times kept by ex-convicts. In the towns they were better, 
and best in Philadelphia, where a public school was opened 
in 1711. The University of Pennsylvania was planned by 
Franklin, in 1743, opened as a school six years later, be¬ 
came a college in 1755, and a genuine university in 1779. 
It was a popular institution. 

161. The Church.—The conflict of races and of lan¬ 
guages in New York made no conflict in religion, for the 
Dutch were Protestants, and the early English settlers were 
Non-Conformists (40). But the government, from 1692 
onward, most unwisely sought to impose the worship of 
the English Church, and to compel its support. Dislike of 
the English Church was a prominent cause of decline in 
loyalty toward England. In New Jersey the Church of 
England existed only in name. Puritan and Quaker influ¬ 
ences were strong. In accordance with Quaker principles, 


80 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


genuine religious freedom was enjoyed in Pennsylvania, and 
the policy of that colony may be said to have become that 
of the United States. 


Abstract of First English Settlements. 

Copy and complete the following Review of the Early Settle¬ 
ment of the Thirteen English Colonies: 


Name. 

First 

Loca¬ 

tion. 

When. 

By Whom. 

Chief 

Purpose. 

Became En¬ 
glish. 

How. 

When. 

Virginia. 

James¬ 

town. 

1607. 

English¬ 

men. 

Adventure 
and gold. 


At the 
begin¬ 
ning. 

Massachusetts. 







New York. 





By con¬ 
quest. 

1664. 

NewHampshire. 







Connecticut. 







Maryland. 







Rhode Island. 







Delaware. 







North Carolina. 







New Jersey. 







South Carolina. 







Pennsylvania. 







Georgia. 













































THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1750. 


81 


CHAPTER XII. 

The Thirteen Colonies in 1750. 

For Explanation. —Prevailingly; felony; malice; tithing; penal; 
postal. 

Outline of Paragraph 167. —Colonial governments divided into three 
classes; charter —people electing governor; proprietary —owner appoint¬ 
ing governor; royal —king appointing governor. At first, charter gov¬ 
ernment, three colonies; proprietary, eight; royal, one; changed to 
charter, two; proprietary, three; royal, seven. In all colonies, people 
elect legislature, with power of taxation. 

[Outline other paragraphs in a similar way.'] 

162. The colonial governments are frequently divided 
into three classes: charter governments, in which the colo¬ 
nists elected their governor; proprietary governments, in 
which the owner of the land appointed the governor; and 
royal governments, in which Great Britain appointed the 
governor. Massachusetts Bay colony was an example of 
a charter government, Maryland of a proprietary govern¬ 
ment, and Virginia, after the charter of the company was 
revoked (106), of a royal government. The thirteen colo¬ 
nies belonged to these classes, as follows: 

As Founded: 


Charter. 

Proprietary. 

Royal. 

Rhode Island .... 

Maryland. 

Virginia (after 1621). 

Connecticut .... 

Pennsylvania . . . 


Massachusetts Bay . . 

Delaware. 

New Hampshire . . 
New York .... 
New Jersey .... 
The Carolinas . . . 



Georgia. 



After the early experiments of the proprietary compa¬ 
nies, and the annihilation of the Massachusetts charter, 
they became and were, 

6-H 

















82 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


In 1750: 


Charter. 


Proprietary. 


Royal. 



Rhode Island . . 
Connecticut . . 


Maryland . 
Pennsylvania 
Delaware . 


. Massachusetts. 
. . . Virginia. 
New Hampshire. 

New York. 
. . New Jersey. 
North Carolina. 
South Carolina. 
. . . Georgia. 


More important than these distinctions in the choice of 
governors, is the fact seen in the history of every colony, 
that the people managed all their local affairs. , They were 
represented in a legislature of their own choosing, and 
which had the sole power of taxation, and in general sought 
only the good of the people. 

163. [The people of the thirteen colonies were prevailingly of En¬ 
glish stock. In New England there was pride of race and origin. “ God 
sifted a whole nation,” said an old governor, “ that he might send choice 
grain to this wilderness.” Among the southern planters there was 
pride of family and descent from Cavalier aristocracy. Southern plan¬ 
tations passed by inheritance from father to son, and in the same way 
the estates of the Dutch settlers of New York w T ere preserved. In 
New England there were few large estates. The English descendants 
changed somewhat in appearance from their forefathers, becoming less 
ruddy in face, and less stout in form.] 


164. The slave population was quite numerous in all 
the colonies, and especially so on the plantations from Ma¬ 
ryland south. Slaves were held in bondage by laws, the 
severity of which indicates "‘the widespread fear among 
the masters of a slave insurrection.” “ The slaves had no 
rights which any white man was bound to respect. If a 
master killed a resisting slave, it was no felony, for no man 
could be presumed to have any malice in destroying his 
own property. Slaves were debarred from giving evidence, 
except at the trial of one of their own race for capital 
162. Describe the difference between pride of race and pride of family . 
















THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1750. 


83 


offense.” However, they were generally “mildly treated, 
well clothed and fed. Many of them had gardens and 
poultry, and, as they were carefully kept in a state of 
densest ignorance, it is not going too far to say they were 
tolerably contented and happy.” 

165. Occupations.—Agriculture was the leading occu¬ 
pation in the whole land. Hay, grain, and cattle were 
shipped from New England to New York and Philadel¬ 
phia. Indian corn had been a blessing to the early set¬ 
tlers, for it could be easily raised where wheat would have 
failed. Corn bread remained a staple of food. New En¬ 
gland whale and cod fishermen carried on an extensive 
and profitable business. There was considerable trade 
along the coast and with the West Indies, which supplied 
the colonies with molasses and sugar. In the middle 
colonies, especially Pennsylvania, manufactures, as leather, 
paper, glass, and linen cloth, began early and grew steadily. 
The southern planters raised corn and wheat for their own 
use; tobacco, rice, and indigo for export. Along the west¬ 
ern frontier every man was a hunter. Women all knew 
how to use the spinning wheel and the hand loom, and 
homespun cloth was w r orn by the majority. Every man 
knew the use of tools, and could be his own mechanic. 

166. Professions.—Aside from the clergymen there was 
little calling for professional men in the early colonial 
times. This changed as the colonies grew, and law be¬ 
came the leading profession, attracting men of foremost 
ability. The colonies were not excessively quarrelsome, 
but their strict defense of personal rights gave plenty of 
work to courts and lawyers. There were no trained physi¬ 
cians in the land till about 1750, Philadelphia first estab¬ 
lishing a medical school. Druggists and quacks enjoyed 
whatever medical practice existed among a hardy and 
healthy people. 


84 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Puritans Going to Church. 
Engraved from Boughton’s celebrated painting. 






















THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1750 , 


85 



Sunday Morning in Virginia. 





































































86 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


167. Clergymen were the leading class in early New 
England. Their influence controlled the laws and habits 
of the people. Their power gradually weakened as the af¬ 
fairs of government came to be separated from the church. 
They were stern, severe men, hard workers, and finely edu¬ 
cated, versed in all the ancient, and, occasionally, in the 
modern languages. Outside of New England there was no 
such body of educated clergymen. Those who officiated in 
the English Church where it was established were generally 
jolly, good natured men, easy-going in their own habits, 
and careless of the state of their parishes. 

168. [The observance of the Sabbath illustrates the difference in 
religious spirit between the North and the South. The Puritan “Sab¬ 
bath ” began at six o’clock Saturday evening, and lasted until sunset on 
Sunday. All work of every description was suspended, while amuse¬ 
ments and sports, rare enough on week days, were absolutely prohib¬ 
ited. There was no traveling, no movement in the streets, nothing but 
religious exercises at home and in church. In some places, if any one 
was absent from church for more than one Sunday, the tithing man 
sought the offender out, and he was obliged to offer sufficient defense, 
or be fined, set in the stocks or in a wooden cage, or whipped. Rules 
were less strictly enforced in later days, but the spirit remained. The 
church services were tediously long. A sermon often lasted two hours, 
with prayers in proportion. On account of the scarcity of books, the 
hymns were given out one line at a time, by a “ leader,” and then sung 
by the congregation. Only about five tunes were common to which 
hymns were sung. The churches were plain wooden buildings. The 
congregations sat on benches or in high-backed pews. The tithing 
man carried a staff with a brass knob on one end and a feather on the 
other, with which he rapped the heads of men or tickled the noses of 
women if they chanced,to be overcome with slumber. Virginia began 
with Sabbath laws as strict as those of New England, but they soon 
passed away. Sunday became a day for visiting and social enjoyment. 
The average clergyman “ hunted the fox and raced horses, turned mar¬ 
riages, christenings, and funerals alike into occasions for mirth and 
revelry. Stricter habits characterized the newer sects, as Presbyterians, 
Baptists, and Wesleyans.”] 

169. Houses in early New England were all of wood. 
The log cabin gave place to the “ lean-to,” a frame house 
with a steep roof sloping only one way. After this came 



THE, THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1750 . 87 

houses with hip-roofs and also with gables. They were 
solidly built with heavy hewn timbers. Inside were great 
fireplaces with massive stone chimneys. The winter even¬ 
ings spent before the blazing hearth were a cheerful feature 


New-England Colonial Fireside. 

in early New England life. Furniture was home-made, 
heavy, and substantial. In South Carolina the better 
houses were of brick, with broad verandas. In Virginia 
some were built of cut stone. Southern homes tended to 
luxurious living, with costly furniture, silver plate, and 
servants to do all the work. The South allowed a great 
deal more of open air life and enjoyment than the North. 

170. Dress.—Officials and wealthy persons indulged in 
expensive and showy dress. Men made even a greater dis¬ 
play than women. Broadcloth and velvet, lace ruffles at 









88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

wrists and neck, silk stockings, diamond shoe buckles, 
powdered hair, and a sword by the side, made up the cos¬ 
tume of the colonial gentlemen of leisure. Women some¬ 
times displayed silks and brocades, high head-dresses and 
ostrich feathers. The majority of both men and women, 
however, were clothed in homespun. 

171. Amusements.—In New England, after the decline 
of Puritan severity, there were some simple forms of relaxa¬ 
tion. Sleigh rides, picnics, tea parties, quiltings, corn husk- 


A Husking Bee 

ings, and spinning-bees made a round of fun the year 
through. Thanksgiving Day, partly a social and partly a 
religious holiday, marked the great holiday season in New 
England, while Christmas celebration prevailed in the 
South. Places of public amusement came only with the 
growth of large cities. Theaters were resisted as evil, 
wherever Puritan influence extended. 









THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IN 1750. 


89 


172. Military System, Penal Laws, Etc. —The colonies 
had neither army nor navy as regular institutions. New 
England, however, had from the start a regular militia sys¬ 
tem, by which every citizen was trained to arms. Penn¬ 
sylvania and other colonies established the system later. 
Indian wars kept all the colonists familiar with fighting. 
In the seventeenth century, all men, even farmers, carried 
small weapons. Training days, in New England, when all 
the men gathered in their towns for military drill and in¬ 
spection, were among the great events of the year. After 
the drill, there was shooting at a mark, games and feasting, 
with plenty of cakes and cider. Criminal classes existed 
in the colonies, rather from importation than home produc¬ 
tion. According to the ideas of the world at the time, pun¬ 
ishments were everywhere severe. At least seven crimes 
were generally punishable by death. Fines and imprison¬ 
ment were the lightest penalties. Insolvent debtors were 
liable to imprisonment. The nineteenth century has brought 
about a different system of punishments, designed for the 
correction of criminals, not for revenge upon them. 

173. Streets, Roads, Postal Communication, etc. —Some 
attention was paid to street paving in the larger cities, as 
Philadelphia and Boston, and to lighting with oil lamps 
along the sidewalks. Franklin carried out a great many 
improvements in Philadelphia, and, among other things, 
improved the postal system introduced into the colonies by 
the British government. Postal communications extended 
only to larger places, and was extremely slow when com¬ 
pared with railroad time. The mail was carried in post 
chaises, and later on in stage coaches, which were intro¬ 
duced a short time before Independence. Wheeled vehicles 
were not at all common. The colonial governors had the 
first coaches, drawn by six horses. Rich men followed with 
four-horse carriages, heavy and clumsy. Little was done 
at road building, in colonial times, outside of New England, 


90 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and travelers straggled through the forests on horseback or 
afoot, getting across rivers as best they could, and in the 
outside country spending the night at farmhouses. In the 
South, traveling was especially difficult. A visitor was a 
great relief to the monotony of life, and any one was sure of 
a welcome in a Southern home, and of hospitable entertain¬ 
ment as long as he wished to stay. The first newspaper of 
the colonies was the “ Boston News Letter,” first published 
in 1704; there were seven small sheets in the colonies, ap¬ 
pearing once a week, and spreading through the country 
by slow stages. Two days between New York and Phila¬ 
delphia was remarkably quick time in 1762. 

Colonial History to 1750. 


Copy and complete the following Review: 


Colonies. 

Character 

of the 
Country. 

Chief Occu¬ 
pations. 

Principal 
Cities and 

Towns. 

Leading 

Events. 

New England 
Colonies. 

Chapters 
(VI., VII., VIII.) 

Hilly, rocky. 
Many small 
streams and 
[ valleys. 

(Farming. 

1 Shipping. 

1 Manufactures. 

(See map follow¬ 
ing p. 96.) 

Confederacy, 

1643. 

King Philip’s 
War, 1675-7. 
Navigation Acts, 
1651-61. 
Trouble over 
Charters. 
Quaker Persecu¬ 
tion. 

Salem Witch¬ 
craft. 

Southern 

Colonies. 
Chapters IX., X. 





Middle 

Colonies. 
Chapter XI. 






















CANADA AND LOUISIANA. 


91 


CHAPTER XIII. 

1600-1750. 

Canada and Louisiana. 

For Explanation.—Pompous; stages; monastic orders; on parch¬ 
ment ; stupendous; accession; savannahs; ally; Spanish succession; 
Austrian succession; squadron; Gibraltar; metropolis; Sultan of Ver¬ 
sailles. 

To be Pronounced Before Reading the Chapter.—Eu-ro-pe'ans; Loy¬ 
ola (loi-o-da); Joliet (zho-le-a/); Marquette (mar-kef 7 ); Ar-karUsas; 
Il-li-nois'; Navarre (na-var 7 ); Ver^iilles (ver-salz 7 ); New Or 7 le-an§. 


Outline of Paragraph 174.—From 1600 to 1750 English had settled 
narrow border between Alleghanies and Atlantic; west of the Allegha- 
nies unknown to them; St. Lawrence and Mississippi Valleys in pos¬ 
session of France. 

[Make a similar outline of other paragraphs .] 


1. French Exploration of the Interior —1600-1750. 

174. English civilization, planted along the coast, in a 
century and a half had subdued the narrow strip of the 
continent drained by the rivers that run into the Atlan¬ 
tic. The vast and fertile region west of the Alleghanies, 
although claimed in the pompous charters of the English, 
was to them an unknown land. The St. Lawrence and the 
Mississippi, the natural approaches to the interior of the 
continent, fell to the possession of France, the great rival 
of England. 

175. Explorers of Canada. —With a steady and far see¬ 
ing purpose the French kept their hold on the St. Law¬ 
rence, and during the seventeenth century extended their 
explorations inland from Quebec (45). Samuel de Cham¬ 
plain, enterprising and fearless, a master of navigation, a 
careful observer, and the leading spirit in exploration for 
the first third of the century, made Canada known to his 
countrymen in well written accounts, illustrated by his own 




92 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


hand. For many years he was lieutenant-governor ot 
New France, as the French possessions were called; but he 
is to be remembered as the discoverer of Lakes Champlain, 
Huron, and Ontario. In the steps of the explorers fol¬ 
lowed the fur traders, a class of men whose manner of life 
was formed by their business. Hardy and fearless, they 
adopted many of the habits of the savages, but pushed 
their trade with the energy of Europeans. They traveled 
the rivers in birch bark canoes, hunted the deer and the 
bison, trapped the beaver, ai^d bought furs of the Indian 
hunters. The fur trade was the life of Canada. Even 
early in the century, from 15,000 to 20,000 beaver skins 
were annually bought from the Indians and shipped to 
France. 

176. The Jesuits.—As companions of the explorers and 
the fur traders, went the Jesuit missionaries, members of a 
great religious order, sent to subdue the children of the 
wilderness to the spiritual rule of the Church of Rome. 
Also hardy men and fearless, selected for especial fitness, 
trained in severest schools to obey unquestioning an author¬ 
ity of more than military strictness, the Jesuits “ aimed at 
the conversion of a continent.” The French government 
followed up the advance of explorers, traders, and priests 
with a line of forts along the great lakes. 

[Various stages in the history of the Church of Rome have been 
attended by the formation of societies for its advancement. Domini¬ 
cans, called Black Friars, and Franciscans or Gray Friars, are monastic 
orders founded in the thirteenth century. The order of Jesuits, or the 
Society of Jesus, was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola, a converted Span¬ 
ish soldier, in the early part of the sixteenth century, for the purpose 
of fighting the growing power of Protestantism.] 

177. Exploration in the West was continued in the lat¬ 
ter half of the century by Cavalier de La Salle, the famous 
discoverer of the Ohio, and by Louis Joliet, native of Que¬ 
bec, a man educated by the Jesuits and trained among the 


175. What does the 'phrase “ illustrated by his own hand" mean? 




CANADA AND LOUISIANA. 


93 


fur traders. Joliet was sent to find the Mississippi, and 
Father Marquette, a Jesuit, was appointed to accompany 
him. Their starting place was a trading post on Lake Hu¬ 
ron. Their outfit was two birch canoes, a supply of smoked 
meat and Indian corn, and five Indians as paddlers. Their 
course was along Lake Michigan to. Green Bay, and up 
Fox River. From the head of Fox River they dragged their 
canoes across the prairie to Wisconsin River, and again em¬ 
barked. In June, 1673, they steered their canoes into the 
rapid current of the Mississippi. They descended the great 
river to the mouth of the Arkansas, and then fearing to go 
farther, they returned by way of the Illinois River, and 
thence overland to Lake Michigan. 

[These overland crossings from water to water are called portages.] 

178. Louisiana. —In 1682 La Salle descended the Mis¬ 
sissippi to its mouth, gave the name Louisiana” to the 
whole valley, and took formal possession in the name of 
“ the most high, mighty, invincible, and victorious Prince, 
Louis the Great, by the grace of God, king of France and 
of Navarre, Fourteenth of that name” 

[“ The realm of France received, on parchment, a stupendous acces¬ 
sion. The fertile plains of Texas; the vast basin of the Mississippi 
from its frozen northern springs to the sultry borders of the Gulf; from 
the woody regions of the Alleghanies to the bare peaks of the Rocky 
Mountains,—a region of savannahs and forests, sun-cracked deserts, 
and grassy prairies, watered by a thousand rivers, ranged by a thousand 
warlike tribes, passed beneath the sceptre of the Sultan of Versailles; 
and all by virtue of a feeble human voice, inaudible at half a mile.”— 
Parkman. 

2. War between the French and English Colonies—1689-1748. 

179. France and England. —In direct contrast to the 
growth of the English government (42), the sovereignty of 
France became more and more the possession of the king 
alone. Louis XIV., king of France from 1643 to 1715, 
ruled as an absolute monarch. There was no law above 

17S-. What is meant by the “feeble human voice ” referred to in the last 
line? 




94 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


the king’s will. When the English people deposed a tyran¬ 
nical king (Janies II., 1688), Louis gave him refuge and 
support. There were many other reasons for hatred be¬ 
tween the two nations, and long, bloody, and expensive 
wars between France and England were the result. The 
French and English colonies in America were naturally 
rivals, and the wars in Europe made them foes. 

180. [The wars between the colonies are frequently designated by 
the names of the English rulers. King William’s War, 1689-1699; 
Queen Anne’s War (War of Spanish Succession), 1702-1713; King 
George’s (War of Austrian Succession), 1744-1748 The French colo¬ 
nies were far weaker in numbers than the English, but better protected 
by their position. The Frenchmen armed their Indian allies and sent 
them to destroy the frontier settlements of New York and New En¬ 
gland. Captives that were spared the knife and the tomahawk were 
driven through the woods to Canada. New York and New England 
sought vengeance in expeditions by land and water against the strong¬ 
holds of Canada. But land expeditions were always failures, because 
defeated by the difficulties of the march. The important strongholds 
of Canada were Port Royal (now Annapolis), Montreal, Quebec, and 
later, Louisburg. Port Royal was captured in 1690, by a fleet fitted out 
by Massachusetts; but it was recaptured the next year by a French 
ship. In 1710 it was again captured, and this time retained as an En¬ 
glish possession, together with the province of Acadia. In 1745 troops 
from all the New England colonies, aided by artillery from New York, 
and provisions from Pennsylvania, and by an English squadron, cap¬ 
tured the strong fortress at Louisburg, built in 1720. Louisburg, the 
Gibraltar of America, commanding the entrance to the Gulf of St. Law¬ 
rence, surrendered to New England mechanics, farmers, and fishermen. 
By the treaty that pacified Europe in 1748, Louisburg was given back 
to the French, but the boundaries of the colonies were left undeter¬ 
mined, the ground for future trouble.] 

3. Growth of New France to 1750. 

181. The Iroquois, sometimes called the Five Nations, 
occupying the fertile land of New York, and extending their 
war paths south to Carolina, east to Maine, and west to the 
Mississippi, were a permanent obstacle to French progress. 
The Algonquin tribes of Canada and New England were 
the deadly foes of the Iroquois, and the region of Lake 
Champlain was an annual battle ground. The Algonquins 


CANADA AND LOUISIANA. 


95 


were weakening when Champlain and his early successors 
came to their assistance against the Iroquois, with whom 
the best efforts of French leaders and priests failed, after¬ 
ward, to establish friendship. Common hatred of French¬ 
men tended to unite the Iroquois with the English, and 
although they seldom took an active part as English allies 
in war, they were at all times a hindrance to the French, 
and therefore a defense for the English. 

[A treaty was made in Albany, in 1684, by a convention composed of 
Iroquois warriors, and representatives of Virginia, Maryland, Massa¬ 
chusetts, and New York. The invitation had been sent by the Gov¬ 
ernor of New York, at the wish of the Iroquois, and the convention is 
notable as the first in which English colonies, north and south, met to 
consult for the common good. Said a Mohawk chief: “ We now plant 
a tree, whose top will reach the sun, and its branches spread afar off, 
and we shall shelter ourselves under it, and live in peace, without mo¬ 
lestation.” The tree did grow to the heavens, but its leaves were as 
poison to the red men ] 

182. Growth of Louisiana. —-Through the first half of 
the eighteenth century, French occupation pushed on down 
the Mississippi. A fort built at Natchez, in 1716, was the 
beginning of the first permanent settlement in the valley 
south of the Ohio. New Orleans dates from 1718, founded 
by a trading company (called the Western, or the Missis¬ 
sippi Company), which had gained a grant of Louisiana 
the previous year. New Orleans became the metropolis of 
the valley. Mobile, commenced in 1702, was also an im¬ 
portant location. In 1732 the ownership of Louisiana re¬ 
turned to the crown of France. 

183. The French population of America never became 
very numerous. Quebec, the capital of New France, was a 
town of considerable size. Generally, however, the French 
did not settle the country and build towns as the English 
did. Yet, their hold on the country was a strong one, for 
their forts and trading posts lined the great rivers, in a semi¬ 
circle from the* Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. 


96 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Except in Canada and around New Orleans, Frenchmen 
left no permanent mark on the country, hut they weakened 
and pacified the Indian tribes, preparing the way for other 
masters. 


REVIEWS. 

Copy and complete the following reviews: 

1. French Exploration of the Interior— 1600-1700. 


Chief Explorers. 

Office or Purpose. 

Regions Visited. 

Dates. 

1. Champlain. 

Lieutenant-Gov¬ 
ernor of New 
France. 

Canada, 

Lakes Champlain, 
Huron, and On¬ 
tario. 

Early part of 
17th cen¬ 
tury 

2. Fur traders. 


- 

All the time. 

3. Jesuits. 


i 


4. La Salle. 




5. Joliet and Mar¬ 
quette. 





2. War Between the French and the English Colonies— 1689-1748. 


General Cause.—European wars involving France 


and England. 


i Raids on frontier English settlements. 

Expeditions by land and water against the strong¬ 
holds of Canada. 


Name of War. 

Time. 

Chief Events. 

Result, if any. 

1 . 




2. 




3. 





























































- 






























































































































































































v/^> 



;SUPERIOR 


Portage 


Porta/'ge 


Illinois ^0- 

V I 


Ft. Miami 
Portage v A 


Ft. Venango 


Ft. Sandusky 


Ft. Cumber]ami 


Ft. Vincennes 
1732 
F allsA^ 


Massac 

v( Assumption) Cl0 nberlanci # 


Ft. Cliissel 

« 758 

•U\\V 

FT. PATRICf 1 


French^ Post 
(Nashville) 1714 


%|it'T—'V 

^J>\Ft. Dobbs 


>/ JlSFt. Loudon 
1756 ,, 
^wUliiuul^ ,v'li///> 

/ ^Iivv/Zf Vi ' 


French 


Ft. Akenseas 


Augusta N 
V*Ft. Moore 


Ft. Tombigbee 


^ u3C ft 


Charles 


EbenezcrO) 

Savannah 


Ft. Rosalie \ 
(Natchez) \ 
1716 

i)Baton Rouge 


■arien 


Mobile, 

BILOXI, 


Frederica 


Pensacola 


Gulf °f MexiCi 


ffiFt. Diego 
OSSt. Augustine 


Orleans 

1718 


Ft. St. Franci 











,pe Fear 


V 




FRENCH "» ENGLISH 

TERRITORY, 

17 5 0 . 


> 


100 


200 

11 = 


300 


SCALE 


+ English forts built in 
French territory 
during the strug¬ 
gle for the interior. 
=r Portage. 


Louisbui 




































E 




















• f • 




































































































* 











































































CANADA AND LOUISIANA. 


97 


3. Growth of New France to 1750. 


[See map following p. 96.] 



Territory. 

Chief Places. 

Occupations. 

Government. 

Canada. 

Basin of the St. 
Lawrence and 
Great Lakes. 


1. Farming in Acadia' 
and a little else¬ 
where. 

Governor appointed 
by the king of 
France. 




2. Trapping and hunt¬ 
ing. (175) 





3. Trading with In¬ 
dians. (175) 


Louisiana. 

(178) 


4. Fishing in Canada 

waters. 

5. Military service. 

From 1718 to 1732 
by the Mississippi 
Company. Subse¬ 
quently, with Can¬ 
ada, by Governor 
appointed by the 
king of France. 


Competition for North America— 1492 to 1750. 


Nation. 


Territory Occupied. 


Becoming Previous 
to 1750. 


Spanish . 


I' Florida . . ] 
<{ Mexico. . \- 
[California, j 


New Spain. 


French . 


Dutch 
Swedish . 


English . 


I' Louisiana. ^ 

( Canada. . f 
Acadia). . . 

New Netherlands 


..New France. 

.(English province). 

[New York . . . ^ 

>| New Jersey . . j 
t Delaware . . . 


fNew England 
Pennsylvania 
Maryland . 

I Virginia . . 

I Carolinas . 

I Georgia . . 


The thirteen En- 
j glish colonies. 

J 


Review the settlement of North America by nations and by ter¬ 
ritory. 

7-H 




























98 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XIV. 

1750-1763. 

The Struggle for the Interior. 

For Explanation.—Alert; parallel; frontier; reflections; preten¬ 
sions; original; commissioner; flank; counter; envoy; emblems; spare; 
agile; swooped; compromise; ambush; emissary; foray; base; scale; 
sentries; onset; cruisers; privateers. 

To be Pronounced Before Reading the Chapter.—Fron-te-nac'; de 
Bienville (deh be-an / vel); Gist; Le Boeuf (leh buf); Kanawha (ka- 
naw'wa); Du Quesne (du kane / ); Dinwid'die; Dieskau (dees'kow); 
Beausejour (bo-se-zhoor ); Ma-drid'. 


Outline of Paragraph 191.— Florida and Mexico and southward 
acknowledged Spain; exception; England and France contest for the 
north; England —thirteen growing states, with the best of people and 
laws; France —with scattered population, often corrupt, under military 
rule; English settlers ten times as many as French; France —controls 
the great St. Lawrence and Mississippi waterways; England— the Hud¬ 
son and Susquehanna; France —difficult position to attack; England — 
exposed on the ocean, east, and on her frontier, west; France —definite 
plan and one head; English Colonies —undecided and divided. 

[Make a similar outline of other 'paragraphs .] 

184. Rival Powers in America.—Spain had led the way 

across the Atlantic; and the new world, from Florida and 
Mexico southward, excepting only Brazil, yielded to Span¬ 
ish arms, and paid rich tribute to the monarch at Madrid. 
The contest for the control of the country to the northward 
lay between the English and the French races. England 
was represented by the thirteen growing States, reproducing 
and developing in America the best of England’s institu¬ 
tions and laws; France, by a scattered population, under a 
military government, alert, but despotic, and often corrupt; 
for Canada swarmed with official thieves. The English in 
America outnumbered the French more than ten to one. 
But the contest did not rest in numbers alone. France had 
the control of the great waterways, the Mississippi and the 



TIIE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR. 


99 


St. Lawrence; the English the minor ones of the Hudson 
and the Susquehanna. France had the defenses of posi¬ 
tion difficult of attack; the English settlements were ex¬ 
posed along two parallel lines—one the line of their coast, 
and the other of their frontier. Chief of all, France had a 
definite plan, namely: to stop the English growth at the 
line of the Alleghanies; and all her movements were car¬ 
ried out with the directness of military orders, issued from 
a single head. The English colonies did not all feel the 
danger alike, had no means of acting in concert, and their 
legislatures grumbled and quarreled over the expenses of 
defense. 

185. [This an American War,—Previous conflicts between the 
French and English in America had been only reflections of hostilities 
begun in Europe (180). The one we are now to study began in the val¬ 
ley of the Ohio, and extending to the mother countries, was finally 
merged into the great European conflict known as the “Seven Years’ 
War” (1756-1763). The vital question in America was whether the En¬ 
glish language, popular government, and Protestant religion; or the 
French language, monarchical government, and the Church of Rome 
should prevail in the valley of the Mississippi.] 

186. Conflicting Claims. —The territory of New France, 
according to French notions, included practically all land 
drained by the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. England, 
besides her original pretensions (56), had set up the claim 
that the Iroquois tribes, through their treaties, had become 
English subjects, and that England, therefore, was entitled 
to rule all land ever conquered by the Iroquois braves. 

[After the treaty of 1748 (180) commissioners met at Paris, and for 
three years discussed the rival claims of France and England without 
fixing on any boundary. Acadia, which had been an English province 
since 1713 (180), was the chief ground of dispute. England claimed all 
Nova Scotia and a part of New Brunswick, under the name of Acadia. 
France would limit it to the southern end of the peninsula, desiring the 
northern end for land communication between Quebec and Louisburg. 
As a match to Louisburg, England built a strong fort at Halifax, in 
1749, and began a town which in three years had a population of 4,000.] 

187. Outposts. —The activity of France in erecting mil- 


100 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


itary defenses on the frontier was met with counter move¬ 
ments by the English colonies. As early as 1726 New York 
put a fort at Oswego to face the French at Fort Frontenac. 
As a sort of flank movement the French built a fort at 
Crown Point, thus guarding Lake Champlain and blocking 
the natural route to Canada from the south. For years 
these outposts threatened each other, emblems of the deadly 
rivalry of their owners. 

188. [Traders from Virginia and Pennsylvania had reached the 
headwaters of the Ohio, and then carrying their merchandise on pack 
horses or in canoes, they visited the Indian villages, even to the Missis¬ 
sippi. These enterprising peddlers alarmed the authorities of Canada. 
Celoron de Bienville was sent into the Ohio Valley in 1749, to warn the 
English traders, and at the mouths of rivers to bury leaden plates, on 
which was inscribed the title of France to all the land drained by the 
streams. In nearly every village Bienville found the intruding peddlers 
in high favor with the Indians. A Frenchman reported at this time, 
“ The Indians like our brandy better than English rum, but they prefer 
English goods to ours, and can buy for two beaver skins, at Oswego, a 
better silver bracelet than we can sell at Niagara for ten.”] 

189. [The Ohio Company.—While Bienville was planting his leaden 
plates, the Ohio Company, comprising some of the leading men. of Vir¬ 
ginia and Maryland, was preparing to occupy the land penetrated by 
the traders. The Ohio Company had received through the government 
of Virginia a grant of 500,000 acres between the Kanawha and the Mo- 
nongahela Rivers, on condition that a fort should be built, and one 
hundred families established on the land within seven years. The 
company in 1750 employed Christopher Gist, a frontiersman, to pros¬ 
pect their possessions, and he reported “ a fine, rich, level land, well 
timbered with large walnut, ash, sugar trees, and cherry trees; well 
watered with a great number of little streams and rivulets; full of 
beautiful natural meadows, with wild rye, blue grass, and clover; and 
abounding in turkeys, deer, elk, and most sorts of ga ne, especially 
buffalo.”] 

190. New French Forts.—In 1752 Marquis Duquesne 
was made governor of Canada. His movements were 
prompt and well directed. A new chain of forts was to 
connect Lake Ontario and the headwaters of the Ohio. In 
the spring of 1753 an expedition sent from Canada built a 
fort at Erie. Fort LeBoeuf was the next point, and the 


THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR. 


101 


summer ended with French garrisons at these forts, and a 
few men stationed at Venango, a trading post. Here, in 
the beginning of December, 1753, arrived Major George 
Washington, Adjutant-General of the Virginia militia, only 
twenty-one years old, but the chosen envoy of Governor 
Dinwiddie of Virginia, bearing a letter warning the French 
trespassers to depart at once from the territory of the King 
of Great Britain. 

191. [George Washington was born in Virginia, February 22d, 1732. 
A grateful nation honors the day as a general holiday. Every boy or 
girl who expects to be a citizen of the United States should study the 
brave deeds and the wise and noble words which make us acquainted 
with the character of this great American. His boyhood passed with 
little schooling, but with plenty of out of door sport and exercise, which 
gave him good health and vigorous strength. He was a tall man, rather 
spare, quick and agile, and a bold and graceful rider. From sixteen to 
nineteen he was a land surveyor, and in this work he became ac¬ 
quainted with Virginia and the habits of its Indian people. When he 
was nineteen the expected trouble with the French and Indians led 
Virginia to make military preparations. The colony was divided into 
districts, in one of which Washington was commissioned as a major. 
In 1753 he was the man best fitted for the tedious journey from Will¬ 
iamsburg to Lake Erie, a journey made doubly perilous by the cold of 
winter and the treachery of Indians. (See portrait, p. 189.) 

192. Preparation in Virginia.—The French had no 
thought of giving up the Ohio. The commission (186) had 
failed to fix a boundary, and war must decide the question 
of ownership. The home government authorized Dinwiddie 
to act, but left him to get his men and money from the 
colony. The House of Burgesses was slow to lay taxes 
asked for by a royal governor, whom they delighted to 
resist. Dinwiddie appealed to them and to his neighbors 
north and south, and received help from North Carolina. 
Pennsylvania, from rivalry with Virginia, would do nothing, 
but Dinwiddie’s efforts got together a few hundred men not 
trained as soldiers, but ready for forest fighting. 

193. Fort at Pittsburg.—The plan was to build a fort 
where Pittsburg now stands, the site having been recom- 


102 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


mended by Washington, and the advance began in the 
spring of 1754. Forty men were hurried to the place and 
commenced work. Washington was following with a larger 
party. But the French governor, having no unruly as¬ 
sembly to deal with, could act more quickly. In April a 
French party of about 500 swooped down on the unfinished 
fort, demolished it, and began at once to build one in its 
place much larger and better, which they named Fort Du- 
quesne. 

194. [The First Fight, 1754.—Washington regarded the capture of 
the fort as the beginning of war. He sent for reinforcements, and 
worked forward to find a place for a new fort. When near a place 
called Great Meadows, word came, through an Indian ally known as 
Half King, that a French force was approaching. With forty men 
Washington went to the camp of Half King, and together they made 
a night attack on the French scouting party. “ I heard the bullets 
whistle,” wrote Washington to his brother, “and believe me, there is 
something charming in the sound.” Washington lost one man. The 
French had ten killed, including the commander; the rest were made 
prisoners. This sudden attack of the youthful Washington was the 
beginning of the great war.] 

195. [Fort Necessity.—While waiting for reinforcements, Wash¬ 
ington erected some rude defenses, to which he gave the name Fort 
Necessity. Here a superior French force arrived July third, and firing 
was kept up through the whole of a rainy and dismal day. Although 
the English lost more than their assailants, terms of surrender were 
offered by the French commander and readily accepted by Washing¬ 
ton, who was allowed to lead out his men with the honors of war. 
Virginia’s efforts had failed, and in ail the great valley no flag floated 
save the lilies of France.] 

196. The British Ministry (42) desired to put the bur¬ 
den of the war upon the colonies. For a long time the view 
had been a common one in England that the French in 
Canada were a good check to the colonies, and kept them 
dependent upon England. The ministers advised the col¬ 
onies to act together, and ordered the governors to summon 
a convention of delegates from all the colonies, to consult 


195. What valley is referred to f 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR. 


103 


for the common defense. Thus came about a memorable 
assembly, which convened at Albany, in June, 1754. 

197. The Albany Convention was composed of able men 
representing the New England Colonies and New York, 
Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The first business was to 
renew the treaties with the Iroquois, whose chiefs gathered 
tardily, sullen and distrustful because of the slowness of the 
English in resisting French encroachments. Next came 
the discussion of a plan of union for the colonies, and here 
was displayed the genius of Franklin (158), present as a 
delegate from Pennsylvania. He presented a plan of union 
which recognized the colonial governments as well as the 
authority of the king. It was discussed and adopted by 
the convention, but being a compromise, it found favor 
neither in England nor in America. 

198. [Franklin’s plan provided for a general colonial government, 
made up of a Grand Council, Colonial Assemblies, and a President-Gen¬ 
eral appointed by the king. This general government had specified 
powers, chiefly with respect to Indian affairs, land, and military de¬ 
fenses. It could levy taxes for these general purposes. The President- 
General was the chief executive officer, and had a negative on all the 
acts of the Grand Council. All laws had to receive the approval of the 
king.] 

199. Military Plans for 1755.—Although both England 
and France still politely assured each other that there was 
no war, both governments sent troops to America. General 
Braddock took two British regiments to Virginia, and as¬ 
sembled the colonial governors for consultation. Four lines 
of attack were agreed upon, designed to sweep the French 
from America: 

1. Braddock, the commander-in-chief, was to capture 
Fort Duquesne (193). 

2. Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, was to march by 
way of Oswego against Fort Niagara. 

3. Johnson, a land owner on the Mohawk, and a leader 
among the Indians, was to capture Crown Point. 


104 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


4. An army of New Englanders was to attack the Aca- 
dians. 



200. [The Campaign of 1755. —Braddock’s fine army of trained sol¬ 
diers worked its way nearly to Fort Duquesne, but was there caught in 


Evangeline, the Acadian Maiden. 

an ambush and sent in miserable retreat to Philadelphia. Nearly 1,000 
men were lost. Braddock was killed, and all his papers captured, re¬ 
vealing the English plans to the enemy. Shirley got as far as Oswego, 
but dared go no farther, lest he should be cut off by French from Fron- 




THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR. 


105 


tenac. Johnson’s array contained several men from New England, who 
knew better than he how to fight on the frontier. A French army, com¬ 
manded by Baron Dieskau, coming down by way of Lake Champlain, 
was hurled back in defeat from the shores of Lake George, but Johnson 
did not follow up this advantage, and only strengthened the lines at 
Forts Edward and William Henry. The expedition against Acadia 
resulted in the capture of Fort Beausejour, the seizure of about 4,000 
Acadians, and their transportation to the English colonies.] 

201. The Acadians.—[The French inhabitants of Acadia in 1713(186) 
were allowed to remove within a year, but all who chose were free to 
remain, keeping their own religion and laws. Most of them staid and 
prospered under English protection. In 1745 and afterwards, the Aca¬ 
dians ought to have been neutral, but French emissaries among them, 
especially their priests, kept them stirred up against the English author¬ 
ities. They repeatedly refused to swear any allegiance to England. 
But all their quarrels and defiance did not justify the breaking up of 
their homes, and the separation of families in their forced removal to 
places strahge to them and their customs. Although the Acadians were 
far from being the quiet, peace loving, and thrifty people described by 
the poet, still the treatment that they received is a lasting blot upon the 
history of English government in Nova Scotia. (Read Longfellow’s 
poem “Evangeline” for the story of their banishment.)] 

202. Declaration of War and Fighting in 1756.—En¬ 
gland and France, in 1756, made formal declaration of the 
war already two years old in the colonies, and at this time 
the European conflict began (185). For two years the 
French remained generally victorious. Marquis de Mont¬ 
calm was their military commander, a man whose ability 
made up for the fewness of his soldiers, and the hindering 
jealousy of the governor of Canada. In 1756 Montcalm 
captured Oswego, destroying the English hold on Lake On¬ 
tario, and strengthened the defenses at Ticonderoga. On 
the English side Colonel Webb, Major-General Abercrom¬ 
bie, and the Earl of Loudon were appointed commanders. 
Not one of these was an efficient officer, and all of them 
offended the provincial troops by making all officers who 
held commissions in the regular British army rank above 

200. For a fuller account of this battle, read Lesson 109, Second Reader, 
California Series. 

202. Who are meant by “ provincial troops?” 



106 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


every officer who held a commission in the colonial militia. 

A major in the regular army ranked above a provincial 
major-general. The only effective fighting on the English 
side in 1756 was done by bold rangers like Robert Rogers 
of New Hampshire, and Israel Putnam, a Connecticut cap¬ 
tain, who checked the Indian forays on the frontier. 

203. [Events of 1757.— The French began the year with an unsuc¬ 
cessful attempt to surprise Fort William Henry. The Earl of Loudon 
failed miserably in an assault upon Louisburg, and having taken the 
best men from the frontier he left the way open to Montcalm, who now T 
compelled Fort William Henry to surrender. By the terms of the sur¬ 
render, the English garrison was to march to Fort Edward unmolested, 
but in spite of Montcalm’s efforts to control his Indian allies, many an 
English soldier was murdered and many others stripped and mal¬ 
treated.] 

204. Success in the war changed sides in 1758, for then 
William Pitt, the great English statesman, was made Prime 
Minister of England (42), and he defended the colonies 
with a vigorous hand. The incompetent officers were grad¬ 
ually removed and better men put in their places. Provin¬ 
cial officers ranked the same as regulars. In this year s 
Abercrombie led a disastrous expedition against Ticonde- 
roga, but this was the last of the English failures. Colonel 
John Bradstreet destroyed Fort Frontenac and regained 
Oswego. Thus cut off from supplies, Fort Duquesne was 
blown up to prevent capture by a strong force led more 
skillfully than Braddock’s by Brigadier John Forbes. An 
English fort was built on the ruins of Duquesne and named 
Fort Pitt; whence the name of the present city. The cap¬ 
ture of Louisburg in July, 1758, Sir Jeffrey Amherst com¬ 
manding the land forces, opened the St. Lawrence for a 
final assault on Quebec. 

205. Events of 1759.— Niagara and the posts along Lake 
Erie fell during this year, and Ticonderoga and Crown Point 
were abandoned at the approach of an army led by Am¬ 
herst, the abler successor of Abercrombie, for Montcalm 


THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR . 


107 



Capture of Quebec. 












































108 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


was compelled to withdraw his men from the frontier to de¬ 
fend the capital. Amherst was to have gone on to Quebec, 
but he was too slow in his movements, and the honor of cap¬ 
turing the great stronghold of Canada belongs solely to 
General James Wolfe, a young commander, only in his 
thirty-third year, but the choice of Pitt for the most impor¬ 
tant work of the war. On September 19th, 1759, the En¬ 
glish flag was unfurled over Quebec and the war in America 
was practically ended, for the strength of New France had 
% been exhausted in the defense of her capital. New England 
was filled with rejoicing at the downfall of her enemy. 

206. [Capture of Quebec.—The site of Quebec has the finest natu¬ 
ral defenses on the continent. A steep promontory between two rivers 
makes a walled fortress on top, almost impossible to capture. Mont¬ 
calm had extended his fortifications along the St. Lawrence from the 
River Charles to the Montmorenci. The whole number defending the 
intrenchments and the fortress, including Indians, was about 16,000 
men. Wolfe had about 9,000 free for operations on land. The guns on 
board his ships could not be elevated sufficiently to reach the fortress, 
and Wolfe carried a part of his men to Point Levy. Bombardment 
from that point resulted only in driving the non-combatants from the 
lower part of the town at the base of the promontory. Montcalm’s 
policy was to tire out his adversary, and Wolfe tried in vain to provoke 
a general conflict at the lower camp and to land troops on the St. Law¬ 
rence bank above the city. In this way time passed from June to Sep¬ 
tember. One plan remained: to scale the heights back of the fortress, 
called the Heights of Abraham, and fight the French upon the top. 
While a part of the army pretended an attack on Montcalm’s camp, 
Wolfe ran his boats up the river above the city and made another pre¬ 
tense to attack the French defenses there. Then a moonless night was 
chosen for the grand assault. Volunteers passed the sentries on the 
shore by giving the name of a French regiment, and made a landing in 
a small cove where a steep ravine gave a chance to climb to the heights 
above. The negligent French guard on top was overpowered, and 
morning revealed the bulk of Wolfe’s army drawn up in fighting order 
on the Plains of Abraham. Theresas still the fortress wall ahead, but 
Montcalm decided on a sudden onset, and with a more numerous army 
came out to meet his foe. The two lines exchanged volleys at close 
range, and Wolfe gave the command to charge. As he was leading the 
charge two shots hit him, and a third lodged in his breast. Montcalm, 
borne backward by the flight of his troops, was also mortally wounded. 
Both generals lived to learn the result of the fight. Wolfe’s words were, 
“ God be praised, I die in peace.” Montcalm said, “ 1 am happy that I 
shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec.”] 

205. What place ivas the capital f 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE INTERIOR. 


109 


207. Conquest of Canada. —No attempt of the French 
forces was able to recover the surrendered fortress, and the 
arrival of additional English troops both by land and water 
brought about the surrender of Montreal and the remain¬ 
ing French forts in the west in 1760. Canada was con¬ 
quered, and the English colonists hoped to sit under their 
own vines and fig trees, with none to make them afraid. 

208. War in the West Indies. —The war went on in other 
places. British forces relieved from service in Canada were 
turned against the French islands in the West Indies. Co¬ 
lonial soldiers went with the regulars and helped the Brit¬ 
ish navy sweep French merchantmen from the sea. The 
king of Spain became the ally of France in 1761, and in 
the next year English and colonial cruisers paid him for it 
by destroying Spanish colonial commerce, and by captur¬ 
ing Havana, the capital of Cuba and the key to the Gulf of 
Mexico. These operations were very profitable to the colo¬ 
nies. The privateers were rewarded by plunder, the mer¬ 
chant vessels got the trade of the West Indies, and the 
whole country the business of supplying provisions to fleets 
and armies. Pitt, whose vigor and boldness had brought 
the victories, was the idol of America. 

209. [Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, took up the war in which Mont¬ 
calm had failed, and formed a formidable conspiracy among the tribes 
from the Ottawas to the lower Mississippi. The Iroquois alone kept 
out of it. Pontiac rehearsed the wrongs his race had received at the 
hands of the English. He showed his fellows that English occupation 
was death to them, and he said that the French king was coming with 
an army to protect his children of the forest. This plan was to keep up 
a show of friendship, while organizing his forces, and, at an appointed 
time, to surprise and capture all the western forts and drive the English 
back to the settlements. In accordance with this plan, attacks were 
made in May and June, 1763; eight out of twelve forts were captured, 
and three years of Indian fighting, with great loss and expense to the 
colonies, were required to crush the power of Pontiac.] 

210. The Peace of Paris, in 1763, formally closed the 
European war and established territorial boundaries in 


110 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


America. Spain gave up Florida (48) in return for Ha¬ 
vana, and excepting New Orleans, all North America east 
of the Mississippi was recognized as a British possession. 
New Orleans and Louisiana, restricted now to the west half 
of the Mississippi Valley, were ceded to Spain. English 
statesmen had questioned whether Canada should be re¬ 
tained or not, but pride in the empire that was growing up 
in America, prevailed, and Canada was retained as British 
territory. A moderate amount of wisdom and regard for 
American interests would now have preserved to England 
the fairest colonies she ever had. 

[Florida was returned to Spain by Great Britain in 1783.] 


Abstract of the Struggle for the Interior. 


Copy and complete the following review: 


a 


1. Question at issue (192). 

2 . 


f 1. Activity in building military defenses. 

Movements that led 

2 . 


to fighting. 

1 . 


13 . 


f 1754 . 


1755. <j 


2 . 

1. Braddock attempts to capture Fort Duquesne. Fails. 
2 . 

3 .' ’ 

4 . 


1756. 


ns?. {*; 


1758. 


1759 . 


1760. 

1763. 


4. Boundaries established 1763. 



























THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


Ill 


CHAPTER XV. 

1763-1775. 

The Birth of the Nation. 

For Explanation.—Measures; unanimous; tariffs; duties; revenue 
cutters; cabinet; finances; seer; revision; press; ministry; substan¬ 
tially; platform; common; impetus; dissolved; Tarquin; memorial; 

» Caesar; raged; embodied; official; ministerial; fatal compliance; in¬ 
dictment ; prime minister; preamble; expedient; quarters; rescind; 
toast; tumults; redress; men-of-war; raids; scruple; signature; exe¬ 
cuted ; extortion ; freeholders; outlaws; capital; subversion; culmina¬ 
tion; representative; subsist; grievous; redressed; league; conciliation; 
policy; stealthily; detachment; flash in the pan; drenched; alterna¬ 
tive ; virtually ; Chevy Chase. 


Outline of Paragraph 211.—Conquest of Canada gave America to 
the English race; colonists share in the glory; military spirit brought 
out; 20,000colonial troops in service; 400 American privateers; trained 
fighters in every settlement; many trained to command. 

[Make a similar outline of other paragraphs .] 

211. The Results of the War.—The conquest of Canada 
decided that the English race was to rule in America. The 
colonists gloried in the.victory, in which they were vitally 
interested, and for which they had toiled and fought. The 
war had done much for them, besides subduing their rival. 
It had brought out their military spirit in its full strength. 
In the closing years, more than 20,000 colonial troops— 
10,000 from New England alone—had been in service, and 
more than 400 privateers were fitted out in the harbors of 
the colonies. At the end of the war, there were men in 
every village who knew what fighting was, and many a 
man like Putnam, Stark, and Washington had been trained 
for the command of armies. 

212. A New Name.—Before the war the colonists were 
proud to call themselves Englishmen, and there was no 
greater honor among them than to have been born in the 
mother land. To go to England was to go home. But the 



112 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


war showed them that their life was different from that of 
Englishmen, and perhaps suggested that it was an equal 
honor to be an American. Americans, therefore, they will 
hereafter be called. 

213. [England's Debt.—One result of the war was more important 
than military training. It was the taxation of the colonies to pay the 
English national debt. This debt, £70,000,000 at the beginning of the 
war, was doubled at its close. This was the price that England paid for 
the vast extension of her territory in America and India. Only by the 
greatest vigilance and economy could England hope to guard her great 
empire, and make good her indebtedness. What so natural as a de¬ 
mand upon America to bear a part of the burden incurred largely in 
her defense. Taxes in England bore heavily on the land owners, and 
they formed just at this time the ruling class in Parliament. At the 
same time, these land owners had no direct interest in America, no 
knowledge of its people, and no sympathy with their ideas. The En¬ 
glish Parliament proceeded, therefore, to tax Americans.] 

214. The feeling of Americans toward the home govern¬ 
ment was never more loyal than at the close of the French 
war. Royal governors asserted that the colonies were aim¬ 
ing at independence, but Americans, with one voice, denied 
the charge. They looked forward to a great development, 
hut under the British flag. The colonies loved England' 
far more than they loved one another. Some in America 
feared to lose the authority of England, lest the colonies 
should split up into a number of petty States forever quar¬ 
reling. There were Virginians, Pennsylvanians, and Mas¬ 
sachusetts men, but as yet there was no sentiment of union 
to exalt the name American above provincial titles. There 
was a common territory, with natural boundaries, the com¬ 
mon interests of commerce, the same language, religious 
sentiments, and free local government, but the stronger 
bond of resistance to oppression that bore on all alike, was 
needed-to unite thirteen provinces into one nation. Amer¬ 
ican patriotism was horn of resistance to English oppres¬ 
sion, and the blood of patriots made the union lasting. 


21/j.. What is meant by “ 'provincial titles?” 



THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


113 


215. [George III. and Ms Influence.—The measures, which in a 
dozen years changed Americans from loyal English subjects into the 
defenders of a new nationality, “fighting for their just and equal posi¬ 
tion among the powers of the earth,” must not be regarded as the unani¬ 
mous will of the people of England. George III., king from 1760 to 
1820, assumed the crown as a young man obstinately minded to rule in 
his own fashion. He did not, like the Stuarts, seek to override Parlia¬ 
ment (42), but he made a corrupt Parliament the servant of his will. 
The English monarch united with the aristocracy ruling in Parliament 
to suppress public opinion in England and self-government in America. 
Even a king cannot stop the growth of nations, and beneath the tyranny 
of George III. arose government by the people in both England and 
America.] 

216. Trade Regulation.—The monopoly of American 
trade secured by the Navigation Acts (91) made English 
manufacturers, merchants, and ship owners rich. These 
trade laws laid tariffs upon goods imported into America, 
but the British government received very little revenue, for 
the tariffs were universally evaded. The colonies paid du¬ 
ties at the custom houses when they could not avoid them, 
but no one regarded these duties as taxes. The colonies 
were willing to contribute to English wealth as the price of 
their protection. But the right to tax themselves through 
their own representatives had been maintained by English¬ 
men in America against governors, proprietors, and kings 
(162). Bom of a free race, their inherited love of freedom, 
strengthened in a hundred ways by life in a new land, the 
Americans of 1765 were not the men to submit to tyranny. 
When the English Parliament, in which America had no 
representatives, proposed to tax Americans, the country rang 
with the cry, “ Taxation without representation is tyranny.” 
Loyalty to king, love of motherland, and mutual jealousies, 
were consumed when once the fiery love of freedom was 
kindled. 

217. Enforcement of the Trade Laws.—The war for the 
interior had directed the attention of English statesmen to 
the colonies, of which previously they had been very igno- 

8-H 


114 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


rant. The English Ministry said that smuggling must be 
stopped, and the trade laws be enforced. A sharp-eyed 
official, George Grenville, discovered that it was costing 
England annually over £7,000 to collect a revenue of £1,000 
to £2,000. The custom house officers waked up when in¬ 
vestigation began. To aid them in detecting smugglers, 
“writs of assistance” were employed in Massachusetts, 
which, by authority of the Superior Court, permitted offi¬ 
cers to search private houses for smuggled goods. Swift 
revenue cutters were provided, manned by rough seamen, 
whose special business it was to suppress the illegal trade. 

218. [James Otis.—The use of the “writs of assistance” was de¬ 
nounced by the press and contested in the courts. The contest in the 
court-room brought into public notice James Otis—“ a lawyer of Boston, 
with a tongue of flame and the inspiration of a seer.” “ To my dying 
day,” he exclaimed, “ I will oppose, with all the power and faculties God 
has given me, all such instruments of slavery on the one hand and vil¬ 
lainy on the other.” Otis was born at Barnstable, Massachusetts, 1725, 
and died, struck by lightning, in 1782. The prophet of the American 
Revolution, his full energy was devoted to the defense of American lib¬ 
erty until his mind became shrouded in insanity.] 

219. The Stamp Act.—George Grenville came to the 
head of the English Cabinet in 1763. His long experience 
had made him familiar with the finances of America, but 
neither nature nor experience had given him a statesman’s 
wisdom. He resolved “ to enforce strictly the trade laws, to 
establish permanently in America a portion of the British 
army, and to raise by parliamentary taxation of America 
at least a part of the money which was necessary for its 
support.” In 1764, along with a revision of the trade laws, 
Grenville announced in the House of Commons that “ for 
further defraying the expense of protecting the colonies it 
may be proper to charge certain stamp duties in the said 
colonies.” Time was allowed the colonies to suggest some 
other way of raising money if they saw fit, but no attention 
was paid to protests against the stamps. In February of 
1765 Grenville introduced his measure requiring all bills, 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


115 


bonds, leases, insurance policies, newspapers, and legal 
documents of all kinds to be written or printed on stamped 
paper, to be sold by public officers at fixed prices. Along 
with this was an act restricting trial by jury. The bill be¬ 
came a law with very little opposition in Parliament. It 
was to take effect November 1st, 1765. 

[Pitt (204) was out of power and absent from Parliament on account 
of sickness. One opponent of the bill, however, spoke of Americans 
as “ sons of liberty,” trained by hardship and danger to maintain their 
rights. His words received no attention in England, but the “ sons of 
liberty ” heard them in America.] 

220. Its Reception in America.—The proposed stamp 
law had been quickly announced in the colonies, for Amer¬ 
ica now had a vigorous press. Newspapers were published 
in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Annapolis, Williams¬ 
burg, and Charleston, and from these news centers were 
spread the ideas of resistance and revolution. The colonial 
assemblies during 1764 protested against the stamps. The 
whole country took up the discussion from the newspapers, 
and all minds were occupied with questions of government. 

221. Americans Divided.—Discussion of the stamp taxes 
divided Americans into two parties. Those who opposed 
the English taxes were called Whigs, Patriots, or Sons of 
Liberty, and those who supported the English ministry 
were Loyalists, Tories, or Friends of Government. At the 
beginning the Patriots were in the minority in some colo¬ 
nies, but their numbers grew rapidly until they included, 
substantially, the whole people. Their platform was drawn 
up in the Declaration of Independence, and their politi¬ 
cal ideas are to be found in the Constitution of the United 
States. (See Appendix.) The chief men of the Loyalists 
were office holders appointed by the king, and persons of 
wealth and high social position. 

222. Correspondence Between the Colonies. — Massa¬ 
chusetts formed a committee of correspondence, and sent a 


116 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


circular letter to the assemblies in the other colonies, pro¬ 
posing harmonious action. This letter received cordial 
responses throughout the land, and finally, when the Act 
“that will be remembered as long as the globe lasts” was 
passed, in March, 1765 (219), it found a public sentiment 
in America ready to resist it. The Patriots were convinced 
that submission to such a law would be a badge of slavery. 

223. Massachusetts and Virginia. —James Otis, in the 
Massachusetts Legislature, suggested a meeting of commit¬ 
tees from all the colonies, to consider the common danger. 
Virginia set the plan moving with a powerful impetus. 
The House of Burgesses, already near the end of their ses¬ 
sion, had delayed action. A vacancy was filled by the 
election of Patrick Henry. On a blank leaf torn from a 
law book he wrote a series of resolves, to the effect that the 
people of Virginia, as British subjects, had the right to 
govern themselves, through their own assemblies, in the 
matter of taxes, and that they were not bound to obey any 
other law imposing a tax. Before all the resolutions were 
adopted the governor dissolved the assembly; but the 
newspapers reported the bold words of the “ forest-born 
Demosthenes,” and they were echoed in every community. 

224. [Patrick Henry, a native of Virginia, was born in 1736, and 
died in 1799. He had failed as a merchant, but succeeded as a lawyer, 
and now his “ gushing, fiery eloquence ” startled the House of Burgesses, 
with “ a warning flash of history ” in the words: “ Tarquin and Caesar 
had each a Brutus; Charles the First, his Cromwell; and George the 

Third”-“Treason,” interposed the Speaker, and others repeated the 

word; but the orator, with steady voice, closed his sentence,—“may 
profit by their example.”] 

225. Sons of Liberty. —Associations calling themselves 
“Sons of Liberty” (221), paraded the streets, shouting 
“ Liberty, Property, and No Stamps ! ” These words be¬ 
came the motto of newspapers, and the favorite toast at 
American dinners. As might be expected, these demon- 


228. Who is meant by the “ forest-born Demosthenes?" 



THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


117 


strations broke over the bounds of right, and were attended 
with the plundering and destruction of buildings, and with 
personal wrong to the supporters of Parliament. All the 
better people deplored these outbreaks, and learned the 
valuable lesson of caution, lest it might be said that Amer¬ 
ica was ruled by mobs. Stamp officers were forced to re¬ 
sign their appointments, and promise never to accept them 
again. Sometimes they were even made to stand on a 
platform and shout u Liberty, Property, and No Stamps ! ” 

226. The Stamp Act Congress met on October seventh, 
in the City Hall of New York. In this city the conflicts 
of opinion were most bitter, for here were the headquarters 
of British strength. Yet nowhere were the Sons of Liber¬ 
ty more determined. Nine colonies were represented by 
twenty-eight delegates, many of whom were lawyers, a pro¬ 
fession that now included some of the ablest and most 
progressive Americans. This Congress w&s an assembly 
“ graced by large ability, genius, learning, and common 
sense. It was calm in its deliberations, seemingly un¬ 
moved by the whirl of political waters.” It adopted and 
forwarded a declaration of rights and grievances, and “ an 
address to His Majesty, a memorial to the House of Lords, 
and a petition to the House of Commons.” These docu¬ 
ments plainly stated the rights of Americans in taxation 
and jury trial. 

227. [Prominent Members.—“James Otis stood in this body as the 
foremost speaker. The brothers Robert and Philip Livingston ably rep¬ 
resented New York. John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, was soon to 
be known through the colonies by ‘ The Farmers’ Letters’ (addressed 
to ‘ The American People,’ and printed in the newspapers). Thomas 
McKean and Caesar Rodney were pillars of the cause in Delaware. Ed¬ 
ward Tilghman was an honored name in Maryland. South Carolina, in 
addition to the intrepid Gadsden, had in Thomas Lynch and John Rut¬ 
ledge, two patriots who appear prominently in the subsequent career of 
that colony.” In the course of the discussion, Gadsden said: “ There 
ought to be no New England man, no New Yorker, known on the Con¬ 
tinent ; but all of us Americans.” The presiding officer, Timothy Rug- 
gles, of Massachusetts, was a Tory.] 


118 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


228. The Stamp Act a Failure. —The resistance went 
farther than processions and petitions. Americans entered 
into agreement to import nothing from England, and began 
to manufacture for themselves. “ Frugality and Industry,” 
was the cry. The richest citizens dressed in homespun, 
rather than wear imported cloth. On November first (219), 
business was stopped, bells were tolled, and flags hung at 
half-mast. Copies of the Stamp Act were peddled in the 
streets, labeled “The folly of England, and the ruin of Amer¬ 
ica.” The stamp legislation had failed. 

229. Repeal. —In England merchants were threatened 
with ruin by the loss of American trade and petitioned for 
a repeal. Grenville had lost his position (217). Pitt de¬ 
clared “ This kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the 
colonies. I rejoice that America has resisted.” Fierce de¬ 
bates raged in Parliament on the question of repeal, for 
Parliament had deliberately proclaimed its right to tax the 
colonies, and was reluctant to take back its words. The 
repeal was carried in March, 1766, but at the same time a 
Declaratory Act was passed, opposed only by Pitt and a 
few others, stating the right of Parliament “to bind the 
colonies and people of America in all things whatsoever.” 
An outburst of joy in England and America greeted the 
news of repeal. Americans cared very little about the 
declaratory act so long as nothing was done to enforce it. 
“ They blessed their sovereign, revered the wisdom and the 
goodness of the British Parliament, and felt themselves 
happy.” 

230. [A National Spirit.—The resistance to the stamp act had cre¬ 
ated a national spirit, soon to be embodied in a national government. 
Otis said that “ one single act of Parliament had set people thinking in 
six months more than they had done in their whole lives before.” A 
British official prophesied that the repeal would be followed by “ meas¬ 
ures for rebellion.” But the Patriots said, “ We utterly deny that such 
an intention ever entered into our hearts.” Otis declared that “ British 


219, 229. How long was the stamp act in force ? 



THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


119 


America would never prove undutiful till driven to it as the last fatal 
resort against ministerial oppression, which will make the wisest mad 
and the weakest strong.” The Sons of Liberty (225) disbanded, and the 
“ colonies cheerfully and affectionately acknowledged their dependence 
on the crown of Great Britain.” But their affection was misplaced.] 

231. The King’s Policy. —George III. regarded the repeal 
as “a fatal compliance.” In 1766 Charles Townshend, a 
brilliant but reckless politician, assumed the lead in the 
House of Commons (42), and in June announced as his 
opinion that the government of America should be made 
“independent of the people.” He was soon the leading 
spirit in the ministry, and urged putting taxes on America 
with an army to see them collected. This was the spirit 
of the succeeding English legislation that led to the Amer¬ 
ican Revolution—the legislation of an English Parliament 
which did not represent the will of the English people, but 
was controlled and managed by George III. We can not 
take up all the acts of the stubborn king and his obedient 
Parliament from 1767 to 1775, nor examine all the argu¬ 
ments and appeals of American patriots. In these years 
the national spirit sprang into vigorous life. Americans 
never fell back a single step from the stand they had taken 
in defense of their right to govern themselves, which right 
the king was equally persistent in trying to overthrow. 
Read the Declaration of Independence for the indictment 
against the last king to whom Americans acknowledged 
allegiance. In the words of an English historian: “The 
shame of the darkest hour of English history lies wholly at 
his door.” 

232. The Townshend Act. —By act of Parliament, in 
1767, a duty was laid on paper, glass, painters’ colors, and 
tea, all of which were regular exports from England to 
America. This duty might easily have been collected in 
England, and Americans would never have complained; 
but the English government desired to make the collection 
in America, so that Americans might know that they were 


120 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


being taxed. Townshend died before his revenue acts took 
effect, and their execution fell to Lord North, a more deter¬ 
mined enemy of American liberty and a more obedient 
favorite of the king. He became Prime Minister in 1770, 
and in this office he served the king for the next twelve 
years. 

233. [The preamble of the Townshend Act stated that it was “expe¬ 
dient” to raise a revenue for defraying the expense “of the adminis¬ 
tration of justice and support of civil government,” and for the general 
defense of the provinces. That preamble was supposed to state the 
right of Parliament to tax Americans, and whatever might happen to 
the duties or to the revenue, this preamble had to stand to keep up the 
dignity of the English government. “ It is the weight of that preamble,” 
said the noble-minded Burke, defending the rights of Americans on the 
floor of the House of Commons, “ and not the weight of the duty, that 
the Americans are unable and unwilling to bear.” (Read the oration 
of Edmund Burke on American Taxation.)] 

234. Organization in America for fresh resistance fol¬ 
lowed the news of the Townshend Act. The assembly of 
New York had been forbidden to meet until a demand for 
quarters for the king’s troops was complied with, and this 
was a warning of the treatment that other colonies would 
receive. Massachusetts acted first, her legislature sending 
another respectful and plain statement of American rights 
in a letter to the English ministry, and another circular to 
her sister colonies. Governor Bernard of Massachusetts 
ordered the legislature to rescind the circular letter. The 
legislature refused to rescind, was dissolved by the gov¬ 
ernor, but its members, reelected by the people, met again 
and the government went on in defiance of the governor. 
Next the king tried his hand and ordered the Massachu¬ 
setts legislature to rescind, and the legislature by a vote of 
ninety-two to seventeen again refused. This vote was pub¬ 
lished in the newspapers, and “The Illustrious Ninety-two” 
became another favorite toast all over the country. The 
king, never learning anything, ordered the other colonial 
assemblies to take no notice of the circular letter, but they 
all resolved to stand by Massachusetts. 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


121 


235. [The New Agitation.—Taught by the riots of 1765 (225), the 
Patriots set themselves for united, organized resistance. James Otis 
denounced mobs, and declared that no circumstances could justify pri¬ 
vate tumults and disorders. John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, wrote: 
“ Our cause is a cause of the highest dignity; it is nothing less than to 
maintain the liberty with which Heaven itself has made us free. 1 
hope it will not be disgraced in any colony. We have constitutional 
methods of seeking redress, and they are the best methods.” The agi¬ 
tation in Massachusetts brought some new men to the front. Among 
these were Samuel Adams, “ a poor man, a universally good character, 
and of rising influence as a popular leader,” and John Hancock, a gen¬ 
erous and steady patriot, w T hose personal services and great wealth were 
freely given to the cause.] 

236. British Troops in Boston.—Massachusetts was re¬ 
garded in England as the center of rebellion, and troops 
were ordered to Boston, “ to suppress riots.” In September, 
1768, vessels arrived in the harbor with 700 men, who were 
landed under cover of the guns of men-of-war, an insult to 
a peaceable people. Before the end of the year, there were 
4,000 regulars in and about Boston. The king withdrew 
troops needed at the western forts, for it was the plan of 
his advisers to expose the frontier, so that the terrors of 
Indian raids might help to humble the colonies. Ameri¬ 
cans thought of arms, but only for defense. 

[In April, 1769, Washington wrote to a friend: !‘At a time when our 
lordly masters in Great Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than 
the deprivation of American freedom, no man should scruple or hesi¬ 
tate to use arms in the defense of so valuable a blessing,” but only “as 
the last resource.”] 

237. [“ Boston Massacre, 1770.”—Americans hated the British sol¬ 
diers, now stationed both at New York and Boston, for their presence 
was a constant reminder of threatened slavery. Ill feeling and inso¬ 
lent talk soon grew into street fights with fists, stones, and clubs. In 
Boston, March 5th, 1770, a few soldiers, without command, fired upon 
an insulting crowd, killed three, and wounded several. The killed 
had a public funeral, the soldiers that fired were tried and convicted 
of manslaughter, and the governor was compelled to remove the troops 
outside the city.] 

238. Repeal of Duties.—In April, 1770, Lord North, 
urged on by a petition from London merchants, who were 


122 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


suffering from American non-importation, carried the repeal 
of the Townshend duties, on all articles except tea. He 
knew that the duties produced nothing but trouble and ex¬ 
pense, and he was glad to get rid of them; but it would not 
do to abolish all the taxes, for the king insisted that u there 
must always be one to keep up the right.” Americans saw 
that this repeal settled nothing. They were fighting for a 
principle, and not against the amount of the tax. 

239. Government by Royal Orders.—George III., in 
1770, began a method of ruling the colonies by royal orders. 
Not waiting for the formality of an act of Parliament, he 
sent instructions, over his own signature, to be executed by 
the colonial governors through military force, if necessary. 
By these orders, colonial assemblies were dissolved, unusual 
places were set for their meeting, and their organization was 
interfered with. Americans for the most part were opposed 
to the slave trade, but the king ordered them to cease their 
efforts to stop it. Prompted by such authority, it is not 
strange that colonial officers were guilty of outrages upon a 
peaceful people. There was extortion in fees, unjust seiz¬ 
ure of property, and unwarranted imprisonment of citizens. 
But all the time a sentiment of union grew stronger, and 
organizations for defense were perfected. 

240. [Violent Acts.—The free spirit of Americans had ample ground 
for collision with British authority. In North Carolina the tyranny of 
Governor Tryon and the extortions of his officers were unbearable. An 
organization of “honest freeholders,” under the name of “regulators,” 
sought redress, but got nothing save more ill treatment. In 1771 Try- 
on, with a military force, marched into the country of the regulators, 
and declaring them outlaws he destroyed houses and crops. A battle 
was fought, resulting in the killing of thirty men and the flight of the 
farmers, few of whom were armed. Despising Tryon’s proclamation of 
peace to all who would swear to obey the laws and pay the taxes, the 
fugitives crossed the mountains, and in 1772, formed a government by 
written association, the foundation of the state of Tennessee, and an 
example to all Americans to govern themselves independent of the Brit¬ 
ish king. The anger of the people of Rhode Island at the commander 
of the royal schooner Gaspee, engaged in compelling submission to the 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


123 


revenue laws, led them to capture and burn the Gaspee one night in 
June,'1772, when it had accidentally run aground. A recent English 
law had made the destruction of a royal vessel a capital offense, and 
allowed transportation of accused persons to England for trial; yet in 
the very teeth of this law the Gaspee was burned, and even a reward of 
£500 failed to induce any man in Rhode Island to betray a countryman.] 

241. The Tea Tax, 1773.—Americans up to this time had 
been in the habit of expressing loyalty to the king, and of 
blaming only his ministers and'corrupt majorities in Parlia¬ 
ment for their troubles. They did not know that the king’s 
will controlled both ministry and Parliament (215). The 
king was anxious “to try the question with America,” and 
the tea tax was selected for the experiment. Since 1770 
there had been no chance to collect the tax, for American 
merchants ordered no tea. Americans had used none ex¬ 
cept what they could smuggle from Holland. Tea came to 
England from India and paid a duty on entering English 
warehouses. In 1773 the shrewd scheme was adopted in 
Parliament of forcing tea on Americans by offering to refund 
the duty collected at the English custom house on condition 
that the tea be reshipped to America. Thus the tea, after 
the duty was paid in the American custom house, could be 
sold even cheaper than it could be bought from the Dutch. 
But Americans cared nothing for the cheapness. They 
were being taxed by a power that had no right to tax them. 
Indignation burst out fiercer than that against the Stamp 
Act. “All America was in a flame.” All the colonies were 
affected alike, and united resistance silenced local quarrels. 

242. The Tea Disposed Of.—To Philadelphia and New 
York came shiploads of tea, but the captains were com¬ 
pelled to sail back to England, their cargoes untouched. 
At Charleston tea was landed, but left to rot in damp cel¬ 
lars. At Boston the people would not let the tea be landed, 
and the governor would not let the ships sail back. At last, 
there was a grand meeting on December 16th, 1773, at the 
Old South Meeting House, and in the evening a party of 


124 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


fifty young men, disguised as Indians, took possession of 
the tea ships lying at the wharf, hoisted the chests from the 
hold, and poured the contents into the bay. There was 
perfect order and rapid work. No one was allowed to carry 
off any tea, and to this day no one knows the names of the 
men who took part in what has since been famous as “ The 
Boston Tea Party.” 

243. Punishment. —The Tea Act had produced indigna¬ 
tion throughout America, uniting the colonies in resistance. 
The destruction of the tea at Boston produced counter-indig¬ 
nation in England. The people called it a subversion of 
the constitution; Lord North, the culmination of years of 
riot; Parliament, actual rebellion, flowing from the desire 
for independence. To punish rebels was the purpose of the 
next legislation. In March, 1774, was passed the Boston 
Port Bill, prohibiting all trade at Boston, and transferring 
business to Salem. The same session of Parliament passed 
four other acts, all in the same spirit. The Massachusetts 
Regulating Acts aimed to overthrow the representative gov¬ 
ernment of Massachusetts by transferring power from the 
legislature to the governor. The other three severally pro¬ 
vided for the protection of magistrates in executing English 
laws; for quartering British troops in America; and for 
making the country north of the Ohio between the Alle- 
ghanies and the Mississippi a part of Canada, thus aiming 
to cut off the growth of the colonies westward. 

244. Continental Congress, First Session, 1774. —The 
punishment of Massachusetts awakened sympathy in the 
whole country. Washington, in a Virginia convention 
(August, 1774), said: “ I will raise 1,000 men, subsist them 
at my own expense, and march myself at their head for the 
relief of Boston.” “ We shall have to resist by force,” was 
the feeling of the country, when delegates, elected by one 
impulse throughout the land, assembled at Philadelphia, 
September fifth. The name “ colonial ” being abandoned, 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


125 


this assembly was named a Continental Congress. Georgia 
sympathized with the movement, but alone was unrepre¬ 
sented. 

[Among the fifty-five members there were many men of positive 
character and wide influence. A number had served in the Stamp Act 
Congress (226), but the majority now saw one another for the first time. 
In them all parts of the country met and became acquainted. John 
Adams, a man of great ability, and Samuel Adams, a man of great in¬ 
fluence, were there from Massachusetts. John Jay, of New York, was 
a man of high character and learning. Christopher Gadsden, of South 
Carolina, represented the genuine American. There were wealthy mer¬ 
chants like Philip Livingston, of New York, competent farmers like 
John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, accomplished and influential law¬ 
yers like the Rutledge brothers, of South Carolina. The Virginia dele¬ 
gation was especially strong. It presented “in Richard Henry Lee, 
statesmanship in union with high culture; in Patrick Henrj^, genius 
and eloquence; in Washington, justice and patriotism.” For “solid 
information and sound judgment” Washington was said to stand fore¬ 
most among them all. Franklin had not yet returned from England, 
where for several years he had acted as agent for the colonies and 
spokesman for American interests, winning universal respect and the 
honored title of Dr. Franklin.] 

245. Its Acts.—Congress approved the doings of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, and pledged the support of the continent. It 
adopted a Declaration of Rights, claiming the protection of 
the English Constitution, and specifying eleven acts of Par¬ 
liament which must be repealed in order to restore harmony 
between England and America. To these grievous acts 
Americans would never submit, but “ for the present” Con¬ 
gress “ had only resolved to pursue the following peaceable 
measures:” 

1. An Association for non-importation and non-consump¬ 
tion of English goods and non-exportation to England. 

2. Addresses to the people of Great Britain, to the col¬ 
onies, and to the people of Canada. 

3. A loyal address to His Majesty. 

All these documents were carefully prepared by able 
committees, and on October twenty-sixth Congress ad¬ 
journed, having issued a call for another meeting on the 


126 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


tenth of the following May, unless in the meantime the 
grievances should be redressed. 

246. [The association for abolishing commerce with England was 
the most important work of the Congress. It was in the form of a vol¬ 
untary pledge, which was signed by fifty-two members of Congress, and 
afterwards by the Patriots throughout the land. The association thus 
united the citizens of the colonies, not as through a league of inde¬ 
pendent states, but as individuals forming a nation. Rules were laid 
down for the government of those who took the pledge, and any who 
broke it were condemned as “ the enemies of American liberty.” The 
address to the people of Great Britain called them “Friends and Fel¬ 
low Subjects,” and said: “ Permit us to be as free as yourselves, and 
we shall ever esteem a union with you to be our greatest glory and 
greatest happiness.” The address to the colonies w’arned them to be 
ready for mournful events, and said, in closing: “Above all things we 
earnestly entreat you, with devotion of spirit, penitence of heart, and 
amendment of life, to humble yourselves, and implore the power of 
Almighty God.” Daniel Webster (473) advised young men who wished 
to breathe the spirit of our revolutionary ancestors, to study these im¬ 
mortal papers.] 

247. Preparations for defense went on throughout the 
colonies after the adjournment of the Congress. All eyes 
were fixed on Massachusetts, where it was evident the strug¬ 
gle would begin as soon as England should attempt to use 
force. From every community there came to Massachu¬ 
setts letters of encouragement, and to Boston, donations for 
the relief of those who suffered from the closing of the port. 
October 27th, 1774, the Massachusetts legislature selected 
a “ Committee of Safety,” to whom was given the care of 
“ warlike stores.” The militia was organized, one fourth to 
be ready for service at any moment. These men signed 
pledges to be ready to fight at a minute’s warning, and are 
now remembered as “The Minute Men.” Officers were 
appointed to command the militia, and the committee of 
safety was authorized to call out the force whenever Gen¬ 
eral Gage, whom the king had appointed military governor 
of Massachusetts, should attempt to enforce the Regulating 
Acts (243). In Virginia Washington headed a movement 
for organizing militia. 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


127 


248. [The king could not understand Americans. He thought that 
a few blows would bring the rebels to submission. In Parliament there 
were great debates on American affairs. Burke delivered an immortal 
speech in favor of conciliation (March 22d, 1775), proclaiming that the 
fierce spirit of liberty in America could not be conquered, but his elo¬ 
quence fell unheeded upon a nation whose pride of mastery had been 
wounded. The policy of the king and ministry went on unchecked. 
They tried to break the union by offering conciliation to separate col¬ 
onies. But as long as the English plan to overthrow the government 
of Massachusetts remained unchanged, the American determination to 
stand together was unshaken. Friends of the king were proclaiming 
in England that “ the Americans were a nation of noisy cowards,” but 
the answer across the ocean was, “ America must and will be free.”] 



Map Questions.—What water was crossed 
by the British in leaving Boston for Con¬ 
cord? Whjf were British troops safer in 
Boston than outside? How could supplies 
be furnished them in Boston ? 


249. Lexington, 
April 19th, 1775.— 

A secret attack was 
planned by General 
Gage to destroy mili¬ 
tary stores which the 
Committee of Safety 
(247) had placed at 
Concord, twenty miles 
from Boston. On the 
evening of April eight¬ 
eenth, a detachment 
stealthily left Boston, 
but was barely under 
way when the church 
bells in the villages 
began to rouse the 
minute men to arms. 


Paul Revere had ridden from Boston to give the alarm 
ahead of the advancing soldiers. Word was sent back to 
Gage for more men, and the detachment marched on. A 
little before sunrise the advance company, commanded by 
Major Pitcairn, reached Lexington Common, where about 


249. See “ The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere ,” California Third Reader , 





128 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


seventy minute men had gathered under the leadership of 
Captain John Parker. As he rode up, Pitcairn yelled, “Dis¬ 
perse, rebels, disperse,” and his men fired a volley, killing 
seven Americans. The minute men returned a few scatter¬ 
ing shots, killing one English soldier. The war had begun. 

[Both parties were reluctant to fire first and thereby be the begin¬ 
ners of a war. Both commanders had given the word not to fire until 
fired upon. But some of the British soldiers saw a “ flash in the pan ” 
and fired, followed by the whole company. . Probably one of the seven 
Americans that were killed had without command raised his musket, 
the gun missing fire, but giving the “ flash in the pan,” a sufficient signal 
for the English soldiers.] 

250. Concord.—The march was continued to Concord, 
where a part of the stores was found and destroyed. There 
was another encounter at Concord bridge. The English 
had commenced to tear up the planks, when a company of 
militia-men rushed upon them across the bridge. The En¬ 
glish soldiers fired first, the Americans returned the volley, 
and more men were killed. It was ten o’clock a. m., and 
militia-men were hurrying toward Concord from all direc¬ 
tions. The English soldiers set out to march back to Boston. 

251. The march to Boston soon grew into a run, for 
American blood had been shed and American blood was up. 
From behind stone walls and fences the farmers poured a 
deadly musket fire upon the soldiers in the road. After 
firing once, they would reload, run rapidly across lots to a 
new position, and fire again. To the English soldiers they 
seemed “ to drop from the sky,” they were so thick. Near 
Lexington the exhausted soldiers were met by 1,000 men, 
commanded by Lord Percy, sent from Boston to help them. 
As Percy marched out that morning, the band playing Yan¬ 
kee Doodle, a Roxbury boy had shouted, “ You go out to 
Yankee Doodle, but you will dance by and by to Chevy 
Chase.” Percy had brought a few small cannon, which 
served to some extent to keep off the assailants, but the 
attack did not entirely cease until the tired English soldiers 


THE BIRTH OF THE NATION. 


129 


gained the protection of the gunboats in Boston harbor. 
Never again did General Gage send an armed man into the 
country. 

[The British loss in killed, wounded, and missing was 273. The 
minute men, of whom not more than 400 were in the fight at any one 
time, had eighty-eight killed or wounded.] 

252. Lexington and Concord raised the courage and 
the military spirit of Americans. “ Unhappy it is,” wrote 
Washington, “that a brother’s sword has been sheathed in 
a brother’s breast, and that the once happy and peaceful 
plains of America are to be either drenched with blood or 
inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous 
man hesitate in his choice ? ” A committee in Mecklenburg 
county, North Carolina, asserted that the English Parlia¬ 
ment, by declaring the colonies in rebellion, had given up 
its authority, and a set of rules was provided to govern the 
selection of new officers with the authority of the people. 
A war for independence had virtually commenced, although 
as yet there was no actual declaration either of war or of 
independence. 


130 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XVI. 

1775-1783. 

War for Independence. 

For Explanation.—Republican; outlawed; expedition; skirmish; 
besiege ; brigadier; martial law; eminence; zig-zag; windrows; para¬ 
pet; dispelled; conciliatory; promoted; condign; enlistment; ravages. 

1. First Hostilities. 

253. Continental Congress, Second Session.—Congress 
reassembled at Philadelphia (May 10th, 1775), according to 
adjournment (245). It met in a two-story building that 
had been erected for the Pennsylvania government, and 
which is still remembered as the State House. Its lower 
room, in which Congress assembled, is called Independence 
Hall. All the colonies were represented. 

[Nearly all tbe members of the former session were present. George 
Clinton, one of New York’s great men, and Franklin, recently returned 
from England with a world-wide fame, were among the few new mem¬ 
bers.] 

254. Power of Congress.—With the authority of the 
American people, Congress began the general government 
of the country. “It was the head of a great movement, 
based on general consent; and as such was recognized and 
obeyed.” The idea of a monarch was lost, and the govern¬ 
ment of the country became wholly republican, the will of 
the majority of the people being the source of law. 

255. “ Green Mountain Boys” and Ticonderoga.—Settlers 
in Vermont had no regular government, but were united in 
a sort of military league under the name of “ Green Mount¬ 
ain Boys.” Bough and ready men, they were just the ones 
to strike a blow when the alarm came from Lexington. An 
expedition planned in Connecticut, but composed chiefly 
of Green Mountain Boys, and commanded by their leader, 
Ethan Allen, surprised and captured Fort Ticonderoga 
and a British garrison of about fifty men (May 10th, 1775). 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 131 



State House— 1876. 


■■ 













132 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Fort Crown Point was captured two days later. Beside 
the forts, these bold moves put the Americans in possession 
of 220 cannon, and a quantity of much needed ammuni¬ 
tion. 

[By Allen’s account the surprise at Ticonderoga occurred as follows: 
As the attackers rushed upon the fort, a sentry snapped his gun and 
fled. But before the sleeping garrison could make any defense they 
were prisoners. Allen compelled a watchman to show him to the quar¬ 
ters of the commanding officer, who sprang out of bed at the summons 
to surrender. “ By whose authority ?” asked the astonished officer. 
“In the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress,” was 
Allen’s reply. And the Englishman thought best to submit.] 

[Vermont had been claimed both by New York and New Hampshire. 
As most of the settlers held titles from New Hampshire, the land was 
often called the “ New Hampshire Grants.”] 

256. A Continental Army. —The militia that gathered 
after the Lexington skirmish encamped around Boston to 
besiege General Gage. So far as they could the people of 
Boston withdrew, and left the city to the British troops. 
Congress having adopted the assembled militia as a Conti¬ 
nental Army, on June fifteenth, by a unanimous vote made 
George Washington commander-in-chief, with rank as Gen¬ 
eral. Four major-generals and eight brigadiers were also 
appointed. Washington left Philadelphia on June twenty- 
first, for Boston, and on the way learned that the great 
battle of Bunker Hill had already been fought. 

[The major-generals were Artemas Ward, Massachusetts (soon re¬ 
tired), Charles Lee, Englishman, Philip Schuyler, New York, and Israel 
Putnam, Connecticut. Horatio Gates, an English officer living in Vir¬ 
ginia, was made adjutant-general, with rank as Brigadier. The eight 
brigadier-generals were Seth Pomeroy, Massachusetts (soon retired), 
Richard Montgomery, New York, David Wooster, Connecticut, William 
Heath, Massachusetts, Joseph Spencer, Connecticut, John Thomas, 
Massachusetts, John Sullivan, New Hampshire, and Nathanael Greene, 
Rhode Island.] 

257. The militia men, whom the news of Lexington 
summoned from farm and workshop, obeyed various local 
chieftains, but had as yet no regular organization. Promi- 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


133 


nent leaders were Israel Putnam of Connecticut, John Stark 
of New Hampshire, William Prescott and Artemas Ward 



Movements Around Boston. 


Map Questions.—On what natural division of land was Bunker Hill? 
What waters nearly surround it? On what part of the peninsula did 
the British land ? In what direction from the peninsula was Boston ? 
What town on this peninsula ? From what point and from what direc¬ 
tion did Prescott advance to Bunker Hill? On what day? On what 
day was the battle fought? How would an opposing fort on Bunker 
Hill affect the safety of British troops in Boston ? Supposing all the 
American troops to have been sent with Prescott to Bunker Hill, how 
could their position have been endangered? What other suburb com¬ 
manded the city ? When did Washington occupy Dorchester Heights ? 
How does Boston lie with reference to Dorchester Heights and Bunker 
Hill? When did the British evacuate Boston? 





134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

of Massachusetts, Ward being recognized as highest in 
rank. Cambridge was general headquarters. 

258. Fortification of Bunker Hill.—It became known to 
the militia commanders that General Gage, who was pro¬ 
ceeding to enforce martial law, intended to fortify the low 
hills about Boston, and they anticipated him. On the 
evening of June 16th, 1775, three regiments (about 1,000 
men), commanded by Colonel William Prescott, and a 
party of Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton, left 
Cambridge for the hills back of Charlestown. After some 
doubt as to choice of ground, earthworks were commenced 
about midnight upon a low eminence, known then as 
Breed’s Pasture, but memorable since as Bunker Hill. 
The position was less than a mile from the British battery 
on Copp’s Hill, and almost within hearing distance of 
British war ships in the bay. Morning revealed the night’s 
work to the British watchmen. One of the ships opened 
fire upon the intrenchers, doing no damage, however, and 
the work was continued till eleven o’clock. Before that 
time General Gage had ordered the cannonading stopped, 
and an assault to be made to drive the Americans from 
the hill. 

259. [The Arrangement of the Troops.—At noon General Howe, 
commanding the attack, landed at Moulton’s Point, with 2,000 men. 
The boats made a second trip for more men, while the first regiments 
calmly ate their lunches. When the plan of attack was seen at the 
American fort, the best possible arrangements were made for defense. 
Knowlton’s men were placed on the left, where a low stone wall, topped 
with two rails, gave some protection. In front of this stone fence, 
in farmer fashion, they quickly built a zigzag stake and rider fence, 
and filled the space between the two with hay, which was lying in 
windrows on the ground. Here came two New Hampshire regiments, 
commanded by Colonel Stark and Colonel James Reed, the only reen¬ 
forcements that came that day to men tired with a night’s hard work, 
without water to drink or anything to eat, except the little they had 
brought in their knapsacks. On the American side, about 1,400 men 
took part in the battle; on the British side, 3,800.] 

260. [The Battle.—The first assault was made about three o’clock 
in the afternoon. The British advanced in two divisions—one led by 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


135 


General Pigot, to drive the Americans from the hill; the other, led by 
General Howe, along the Mystic River, to drive them from behind the 
fence, and cut off the retreat from the hill. From the roofs of Boston 
an anxious people viewed the conflict. Powder was scarce at the Amer¬ 
ican works, and none must be wasted on shots at long range. “ Wait 
till you see the whites of their eyes!” “ Not a shot sooner!” “ Aim at 
the waistbands!” “ Aim at the handsome coats!” “ Pick off the com¬ 
manders!” " Wait for the word; every man steady!” were the words 
that passed from Prescott along the impatient line at the fort. Steadily 
up the low hill came the regular ranks of the British army, under a 
burning sun. There were a few harmless shots from Pigot’s men, but 
in the fort was silence that threatened death. At last came the word, 
“ Fire!” A sheet of flame burst from the whole line, and the ground was 
strewed with dying men. The British line was broken, and retreated 
in disorder. At the rail fence the same saving of powder was enforced 
by Putnam, Stark, and other officers. Howe’s men shot first, and shot 
too high; then the same deadly fire poured over the parapet of hay, 
from hill to river. Howe’s loss was even greater than Pigot’s, and fol¬ 
lowed likewise by a retreat. Charlestown was now set on fire, by order 
of General Gage, hoping that the smoke of the burning town would con¬ 
ceal the movements of his troops. The British lines again advanced, 
the faltering soldiers spurred on by their officers, Howe himself march¬ 
ing at the head. A second time they retreated, with even greater loss, 
before the same deadly musket fire from fort and fence. Americans 
thought that they had won, but a third time Howe formed his men; 
this time in column, and led them against the fort alone. Another vol¬ 
ley made the British falter, but they gained the parapet. Prescott’s men 
had exhausted their powder, and he ordered a retreat, which was pro¬ 
tected by Stark’s men, who retired from the fence. The British were in 
possession of the hill in an hour and a half after the first assault; but 
it had cost them in killed and wounded 1,054 men, of whom 157 were 
officers. The American loss was 150 killed, 270 wounded, and thirty 
prisoners. Just at the moment of retreat from the redoubt, Dr. Joseph 
Warren was killed. A young man, one of the noblest of Massachusetts 
patriots, a member of the committee of safety; he was serving at the 
redoubt as a*private soldier. His ability, integrity, and purity of char¬ 
acter made his early death a loss to his countrymen. See portrait, 

p. 172.] 

261. Results of the Battle.—Englishmen had boasted 
that the “ Yankees” would not stand a steady fight; the 
courage and endurance shown on Bunker Hill dispelled all 
such illusions. The heavy loss crippled the king’s army 
for the time, and irritated the king and Parliament. A 

260. Read the poem, “ Grandmother's Story of the Battle of Bunker 
Hill," by Oliver Wendell Holmes. 




136 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


conciliatory petition that had been sent by Congress re¬ 
ceived for answer a proclamation from the king, that re¬ 
bellion existed in the colonies in North America. General 
Gage was superseded by General Howe. 

262. Washington’s Army and the Siege of Boston.—On 

his arrival at Cambridge, the headquarters of the American 
forces, Washington took formal comftiand, reminding his 
troops that they were now “ the troops of the United Prov¬ 
inces of North America,” and hoping that “ all distinction 
of colonies would be laid aside.” He found about 16,000 
men without regular enlistment or military discipline. 
Ammunition hardly existed. Powder was gathered from 
all the colonies, bought from France, and captured from 
England; but still its scarcity was a great drawback for a 
long time. Mines in Connecticut furnished lead. No man 
ever worked harder or more patiently than Washington. 
The army was gradually trained, and its lines were drawn 
more tightly around the inactive British army besieged in 
Boston. 

263. [Uniform and Flag.—Blue and buff were the colors adopted for 
the uniform of the Continental army. Officers wore blue coats with 
yellow trimmings, and yellow or buff vests. The soldiers seldom had 
uniforms. Hunting shirts, dyed brown, were the nearest approach to 
it. British soldiers had scarlet coats, and this gave them such names as 
“ redcoats,” “ lobster backs,” etc. The Americans were called “ rebels.” 
At first the Americans had no regular flag. Begiments adopted col¬ 
ors and designs that pleased them. A flag showing a rattlesnake in the 
act of striking, and bearing the inscription, “ Don’t tread on me,” was a 
favorite of the privateers (269). The rattlesnake had thirteen rattles, 
the number of the colonies. On January 1st, 1776, Washington un¬ 
furled before the army around Boston the flag adopted by Congress— 
thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, with the united British 
crosses in the corner, red and white in a blue field. Thirteen stars in a 
circle took the place of the crosses in 1777. A new star has been added 
for each new state; otherwise no change has been made in the flag 
which our forefathers adopted.] 

264. Capture of Boston.—In March, 1776, Washington 
occupied Dorchester Heights in the night-time, a repetition 
of the movement at Bunker Hill, and, helped by a stormy 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


137 


day, completed strong fortifications before General Howe 
could attack. Unable to hold the city any longer, the 
British army embarked on the fleet, March seventeenth, 
and sailed to Halifax. 

[From this time on no great effort was made to conquer New En¬ 
gland, which was, for the most part, spared the ravages of warfare. 
New England contributed by far the larger part of the national army, 
but the scene of war was shifted to the middle and southern colonies.] 

2. Invasion of Canada— 1775-6. 



Map Questions. — What two generals marched 
for the invasion of Canada? At what season of 
the year? At what point did Arnold begin his 
march? In what general direction did he go? At 
what point did Montgomery start? In what gen¬ 
eral direction ? Which had the easier natural route 
to Canada, Montgomery or Arnold? Why? At 
what point on Montgomery’s route did a battle take 
place? Where did the two invading armies meet? 
When was the assault on Quebec made? With 
what result? (Defeat of the Americans.) 


265. Invasion 
Planned. —Con¬ 
gress, having 
learned that 
the governor of 
Canada intend¬ 
ed to recapture 
Crown Point, 
General Schuy¬ 
ler (256) was 
sent to the out¬ 
post with orders 
to advance into 
Canada if he 
found it practi¬ 
cable. On ac¬ 
count of poor 
health, Schuy¬ 
ler soon yielded 
his place to 
General Rich¬ 
ard Montgom¬ 
ery, an Irish¬ 
man who had 
served in the 
British army in 
the war with 












138 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

France, and had married and settled in New York. Mont¬ 
gomery, a brave and spirited officer, led a small army into 
Canada. 

266. [Allies were expected from the Canadians, but they gave 
neither British nor Americans any vigorous support. Through the 
influence of prominent Tories, the Indians of New York and Canada 
were arrayed on the British side.] 

267. Montreal and Quebec, 1775.—The feeble British 
garrisons posted in Canada gave way before Montgomery’s 
troops. Montreal was captured (November 13th), and the 
course turned toward Quebec. Meanwhile another force of 
1,100 men, led by Benedict Arnold, a brave but reckless 
man, had been struggling up from New England through 
the forests of Maine, to aid Montgomery before Quebec. 
Arnold arrived first, more than half his men having per¬ 
ished from cold and starvation. Repeating Wolfe’s plan, 
he placed his force upon the Plains of Abraham, under 
cover of night, but the British commander staid within 
his walls in safety. Montgomery having arrived, Quebec 
was besieged, amid all the discouragements of a northern 
winter. An assault was made (December 30th), nearly 
successful, but in the end disastrous, for Montgomery was 
killed. Arnold and several others appointed in succes¬ 
sion to the command, kept the force before Quebec through 
the spring of 1776. More British troops arriving, the Ameri¬ 
cans fell back to Ticonderoga, with nothing gained by the 
campaign in Canada. 

3. State Governments. 

For Explanation.—Anarchy. 

268. From Colonies to States.—Most of the royal gov¬ 
ernors and other officials sought safe places when the fight¬ 
ing commenced. With the news of Lexington, British rule 

267. In what respect did the conduct of the English commander differ 
from that of Montcalm? (206). What made the capture of Quebec difficult? 
(206). Was any other way of reaching Quebec possible for Americans? 

Why ? (268). 



WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


139 


in the colonies was practically over. After the king’s procla¬ 
mation (261), the majority of Americans had little thought 
of allegiance. But with the death of allegiance to the king, 
died also the legality of all legislatures and courts. Had 
not the people throughout colonial times been trained to 
self-government, anarchy would have added its perils to 
those of war. But the people were ready to be sovereigns. 
Through the old forms the local government went on; the 
colonies became states, some with their old constitutions, 
some with new ones, formed by themselves through conven¬ 
tions. Governors elected by the people took the place of the 
king’s appointees. 

[All these State Constitutions provided for Republican government. 
Three departments, Legislative, Executive, and Judicial, were kept 
generally distinct. Most of the legislatures were composed of two 
houses. Certain qualifications—as ownership of land, property to a 
certain amount, or profession of religious belief—were common requi¬ 
sites for office holding and for voting.] 

4. Along the Coast. 

269. American Privateers.—The Americans had no 
navy, while England’s was the best in the world. In 1775 
Congress authorized Washington to employ armed vessels, 
and steps were taken for the building of fourteen small war 
vessels as the beginning of a navy, which, however, were 
never completed. In 1776 private vessels were commis¬ 
sioned to sail under the American flag, and carry on war 
against English ships. These privateers could not do much 
against English war fleets, but they seriously injured En¬ 
glish commerce, and by the capture of provisions and mili¬ 
tary supplies gave help to the American army. 

270. [American seaports were the prey of British fleets. The town 
of Falmouth (now Portland), Maine, was wantonly burned in 1775, by 
permission of General Gage. Other towns suffered the same fate during 
the war.] 

271. The Attack on Charleston, June 28th, 17-76.—It 

was suggested to George III. by the ex-governors of Vir- 


140 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



ginia and North Caro¬ 
lina that the southern 
colonies might easily 
be brought into subjec¬ 
tion by an armed force. 
Tories were numerous 
in the South, but the 
Patriots held the upper 
hand, and when a Brit¬ 
ish fleet, with land 
forces, commanded by 
Map Questions.—What waters wash three Sir Henry Clinton, ap¬ 
sides of Charleston ? On what natural divi- peare( i 0 ff Charleston 
sion is the city located ? Describe Charles- „ . /1vr o-ij. 

ton Harbor. Why should a British fleet harbor (May dlst, 
choose Charleston for a point of attack in 1776), defenses had 
the South? Was Fort Moultrie well lo- been constructed for 
cated? Why? Could land forces easily be c 

brought against it? What difficulties would tiie Clt y- Chief among 
land forces meet in marching upon Charles- these was a fort of pal- 
ton from the neighboring coast? metto logs upon Sul¬ 

livan’s Island, a low, sandy island at the harbor’s entrance. 
The fort was built so as to inclose a small swamp in its 
center. After a long delay, the attack was made (June 
28th), but the best efforts of the British gunners made 
no impression upon the fort, balls sinking into the soft 
palmetto logs without splitting them, and shells sinking 
harmlessly into the swamp. Having themselves suffered 
considerable loss, the British forces, after one day’s work, 
sailed for New York, and Americans rejoiced over a victory 
at Charleston. 


[Colonel William Moultrie was the brave commander of the fort, and 
in his honor it was named Fort Moultrie.] 

5. Independence. 

For Explanation.—Identified; reference to a record; harassed; ex¬ 
ecutive. 


272. Growth of the Sentiment.—On New Year’s Day, 








WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


141 


1776, when Washington first unfurled the flag of the United 
Colonies, there was in New England a public opinion in 
favor of independence; but in the Middle and Southern 
Colonies there was only the preference of the foremost men. 
After the receipt of the king’s proclamation (261), the news¬ 
papers everywhere boldly advocated separation. In the 
center and south the majority of the people clung to the 
hope of reconciliation. Pennsylvania especially opposed 
independence, for the popular influence of the old proprie¬ 
tary government was in favor of connection with England. 
Still the sentiment for independence grew rapidly after the 
beginning of 1776. The bitterness of war, and fierce words 
from the king, continually showed the American people that 
they had no hope but in themselves. 

[A single pamphlet stirred the hearts of hesitating Americans, and 
carried them for independence. This was a pamphlet entitled “ Com¬ 
mon Sense,” written by Thomas Paine, and first published in Philadel¬ 
phia, January 9th, 1776. In a plain and spirited style, it made clear to 
the colonists that everything right and reasonable pleaded for inde¬ 
pendence. Edition after edition was exhausted, and the work was re¬ 
printed in the principal American cities, and in England and France.] 

273. [The popular leaders who are found first identified with inde¬ 
pendence are Samuel Adams, John Adams, Joseph Hawley, James Sulli¬ 
van, Elbridge Gerry, and James Warren, from Massachusetts; Matthew 
Thornton, of New Hampshire; Nathanael Greene and Samuel Ward, of 
Rhode Island; Benjamin Rush and Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsyl¬ 
vania; Thomas McKean, of Delaware; Samuel Chase, of Maryland; 
Richard Henry Lee, George Wythe, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, 
and George Washington, of Virginia; Cornelius Harnett, of North Caro¬ 
lina ; and Christopher Gadsden, of South Carolina. Thomas Paine was 
an Englishman, of Quaker family, who came to America in 1774, and, 
through the help of Franklin, found employment as editor of the 
“ Pennsylvania Magazine.”] 

274. Fourth of July.—On July 2d, 1776, Congress adopt¬ 
ed the resolution, “ That these United Colonies are and of 
right ought to he free and independent states; that they are 
absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all 
political connection between them and Great Britain is and 
ought to be totally dissolved.” “ Now,” wrote John Adams, 


142 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


who had been the great orator in Congress in favor of inde¬ 
pendence, “the greatest question has been decided which 
was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never 
was or will be decided among men.” July third and fourth 
were spent in carefully examining the expressions of the 
Declaration, previously prepared by a committee, and on 
the evening of the fourth the Declaration of Independence, 
in the words that we now read, was formally adopted. 
Americans will never cease to celebrate the Fourth of July. 



275. [The com¬ 
mittee appointed to 
draft the Declara¬ 
tion was chosen in 
Congress by ballot, 
and its members 
were Thomas Jeff¬ 
erson of Virginia 
(412), and John Ad¬ 
ams of Massachu¬ 
setts (401), Benja¬ 
min Franklin of 
Pennsylvania, Rog¬ 
er Sherman of Con¬ 
necticut, and Robert 
Livingston of New 
York. Jefferson had 
entered Congress in 
June, 1775, with a 
reputation already 
established for abil¬ 
ity in writing state 
papers. He received 
the highest num¬ 
ber of votes in the 
choice of the com¬ 
mittee, and the writ¬ 
ing of the Declara¬ 
tion was left to him. Only a few verbal changes were made by Adams 
and Franklin. Jefferson was so familiar with the affairs of his time 
that he wrote the whole paper without reference to a single record. 
“ He so discharged the duty assigned him that all Americans may well 
rejoice that the work of drawing the title deed of their liberties devolved 
on him.”] 


Liberty Bell. c 

It is a curious fact that this bell, though cast twenty-three years 
before, had inscribed on it the Bible quotation: 

“ Proclaim, liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabit¬ 
ants thereof." 









WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


143 


276. How the News Was Received. —As soon as the 
Declaration was printed, copies were sent to all the state 
governments, and through them the Declaration was form- 
ally announced. The army listened to it with uncovered 
heads, and everywhere the people ceased from business and 



Table and Chairs in Independence Hall. 


gathered in imposing audiences to hear its words. There 
were military salutes, flags flying, and general rejoicing. 
The State House bell at Philadelphia, which led the rejoic¬ 
ing peal, is still preserved as “ Liberty Bell.” The symbols 
of royalty were destroyed, and in New York a leaden statue 
of George III. was pulled down and used for bullets to be 
shot at the king’s soldiers. In England the news of the 
Declaration produced general indignation. 

277. United States Government. —The great political 
idea of the Declaration of Independence is that the people 
of a country have a natural right to say how they shall be 




























144 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


governed. Congress continued to act as the national gov¬ 
ernment, but its powers were not defined. A committee 
was appointed in June, 1776, to form a plan of confedera¬ 
tion or government of the states in the Union. But the 
work of preparing a national constitution could not go on 
rapidly in a country harassed by war. The plan of gov¬ 
ernment presented in the Articles of Confederation was not 
adopted in Congress till November 15th, 1777. To give 
this plan of government the force of law, required accept¬ 
ance by all the states, and four years passed before this 
was gained. There were naturally many perplexing ques¬ 
tions connected with so great a subject. Meanwhile the 
states went on arranging their own constitutions, and, thus 
the attention of political leaders was kept at home. Con¬ 
gress continued to represent the national government. 

278. [The Acts of Congress were those of general authority. Before 
the Declaration it invited Canada to join the Union, provided for the 
organization of an army, ordered Tories to be disarmed, opened the 
ports to foreign trade, and held correspondence with foreign powers. 
Arthur Lee, of Virginia, corresponded with Congress from London, and 
Silas Deane, of Connecticut, was the agent of Congress in France. Im¬ 
mediately after the Declaration of Independence, Franklin, now sev¬ 
enty years old, was sent as the national representative to the Court of 
France. He was already known there as a man of science, and in his 
plain clothes and simple manners he was the object of universal notice 
and admiration. His work in France was of supreme value. As the 
difficulties of war increased, the strength of Congress grew weaker. Its 
numbers fell from fifty to seventeen, and even to nine. It was neces¬ 
sarily slow in action, for it had no regular executive. But it wisely 
trusted Washington, and his name and influence kept up the army.] 

6. Washington’s Campaigns— 1776-1780. 

For Explanation.—Maneuver; base; regulars; stand; threatened; 
indecisive; Hessians; cavalry; foraging; futile; accessible; meditated. 

To be Pronounced Before Reading the Section.— De KaZb; Thad'e-us 
Kosciusko (Kos-se-iis'ko); Cas'i-nrir; Steuben (stu'ben); d’Estaing 
(es'tang). 

279. Washington’s army, enlisted under the authority 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


145 


of Congress, was composed principally of farmers and me¬ 
chanics, very largely from New England. As no one ex¬ 
pected a long continued war, the first enlistments were for 
short terms, and throughout the war there was constant 
going and coming. As a result, Washington often had to 
depend upon unskilled recruits for meeting armies trained 
in Europe under strictest discipline. Yet the deeds and 
sufferings of the American army form a record of heroism 
never to be forgotten. 



Map Questions. — Locate Washington’s winter quarters, 1775-6? 
1776-7? 1777-8? 1778-9? Which way, then, did the seat of war travel 
from winter to winter? To capture Philadelphia, the British sailed up 
Chesapeake Bay and marched across the country from Elktown; tell 
from the map why they could not take the city by going up the Dela¬ 
ware Bay and River. Name the battles. After reading the story o£ 
Washington’s campaigns, write these battles in the order of their dates. 

10-H 














146 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


[The total number of American soldiers employed during the war 
is put at 291,971. This includes 56,163 militia, or men serving under 
state authority. Often Washington had less than 5,000 under com¬ 
mand, so much did men come and go. At the beginning Americans 
had no artillery, no military engineers, no system of tactics, and few 
experienced officers. There were a few mounted troops, of whom Mor¬ 
gan’s Virginia riflemen were famous. They were said to be able to put 
a rifle ball through a seven-inch target at 200 yards, even when advanc¬ 
ing rapidly.] 

280. Battle of Long Island, August 27th, 1776.—After 

being driven from Boston, New York was the next place 
for the British to attack. Washington transferred his army 
from Boston, and began defenses before the arrival of Gen¬ 
eral Ilowe with the British army. A battle was fought on 
Long Island, where the Americans were commanded by 
Generals Putnam and Sullivan. A hard fight left the 
Americans in heavy defeat, with Sullivan and nearly 1,000 
men prisoners. 

281. Loss of New York.—All the troops were removed 
from Long Island in a single night, a skillful maneuver, 
conducted by Washington himself, who was for hours with¬ 
out sleep, and most of the time in the saddle. New York 
was held, until to stay longer would have put the whole army 
in peril. Some advised that the city should be burned. Not 
being destroyed, it afforded the British shelter, and a base 
of operations, both on land and water, for the rest of the 
war. The disasters around New York discouraged Ameri¬ 
cans. Half of Washington’s army deserted him. “The 
militia went off,” he says, “in some instances almost by 
whole regiments; in many instances by half ones, and by 
companies at a time.” The same spirit infested the regu¬ 
lars. 

282. [Execution of Nathan Hale.—One incident in the operations 
around New York is to be remembered as an example of the cruelty of 
war. Washington, while in New York, desired some information of the 
British arrangements on Long Island, and Nathan Hale, a young Con¬ 
necticut Captain, just graduated from Yale College, talented and be- 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 1 


147 


loved, volunteered to go in disguise within the British lines. He had 
completed his observations, and was on the point of returning to the 
city, when he was seized and taken before General Howe. Here he 
frankly avowed his name, position, and purpose, and, without a trial, 
was next day hanged as a spy. Not his death, for that was to be ex¬ 
pected, but his cruel treatment beforehand, aroused the anger of Amer¬ 
icans. Even a Bible was denied him, and a letter written to his mother 
was destroyed. His last words, remembered and reported by an En¬ 
glish officer, were: “ I regret that I have but one life to lose for my 
country.”] 

283. Retreating and Skirmishing.—Howe’s plan was to 
cut off Washington from New England, and force him to 
fight a decisive battle. Washington’s hope was to gain 
time—resisting, delaying, but not risking a general battle, 
which would have been destruction. There was a brilliant 
skirmish at Harlem, a well defended stand at White 
Plains; but the Americans had to fall back northwards. 
The English captured Fort Washington (November 16th), 
with 2,600 prisoners. Fort Lee was abandoned. Howe 
now crossed into New Jersey, and Washington turned to the 
southward for the defense of Philadelphia. 

284. Washington’s memorable retreat across New Jer¬ 
sey is distinguished in military records, not for fighting, but 
for skill in escaping it. By breaking down bridges he made 
less than seventy miles in a level country cost his pursuers 
nineteen days; and by crossing the Delaware and destroy¬ 
ing boats for seventy miles, he made them decide to post¬ 
pone attempts to follow him further until the river should 
freeze over. 

285. [General Charles Lee, who now ranked next to Washington 
(256), had been left in command of troops at North Castle. He was a 
man of English birth, boasting a large military experience, on account of 
which the offer of his services was accepted by Congress. He seems, 
however, to have had neither military ability nor affection for the 
American cause. Being commanded to bring his force to the support 
of Washington, he not only disobeyed, but acted so carelessly that he 
was himself taken prisoner. General Sullivan (256), who had been 


282. Why was Hale's death expected? 




148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

exchanged, was put in Lee’s place, and promptly brought the force to 
Washington’s assistance. While a prisoner at New York, Lee offered 
a plan of conquest to General Howe. The Americans afterwards re¬ 
ceived Lee in exchange, not knowing his treason, which was brought 
to light by the investigation of recent years.] 

286. The situation in December, 1776, was discouraging 
to Americans. The British had captured Newport, Rhode 
Island, and held New York and nearly all New Jersey. 
Philadelphia was threatened, and Congress withdrew to 
Baltimore. Patriotic spirit in Pennsylvania was feeble. 
The Quakers, always opposed to war, in a meeting at Phil¬ 
adelphia, refused “ in person or by other assistance ” to join 
in carrying on the war. In New Jersey people became 
afraid, and in numbers sought the protection of British 
arms. Washington, although many in the country were 
ready to join with Lee in calling him indecisive, never des¬ 
paired, and now showed his alertness, decision, activity, 
and skill. Howe’s army, spread over New Jersey to keep 
down the Patriots, was enjoying comfortable winter quarters 
and Christmas festivities. 

287. Recovery of New Jersey. —On Christmas night, 
in boats, the trip made perilous by blocks of drifting ice, 
Washington recrossed the Delaware with 2,400 men, sur¬ 
prised a force of 1,500 Hessians and a party of English 
cavalry, at Trenton, captured nearly 1,000 prisoners with 
their arms and stores, and returned safe into Pennsylva¬ 
nia, with the loss of only four men, of whom tw T o were 
frozen to death. On December thirtieth, Washington took 
possession of Trenton, and by skillful movements and a 
battle at Princeton (January 13th, 1777), in which the 
British loss was four times the American, he obliged the 
British army, commanded by Lord Cornwallis, to give up 
the whole of New Jersey except Brunswick and Amboy. 
Washington placed his army in winter quarters at Morris¬ 
town, a well chosen position. Through the spring Howe, 
the British Commander-in-Chief, exhausted all his skill in 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


149 


trying to provoke a general engagement, and to reopen a 
land route to Philadelphia. Unsuccessful in these en¬ 
deavors, he finally withdrew all his troops to New York. 



Washington Crossing the Delaware. 


288. Condition of the American Army.—All this time 
Washington had less than 5,000 men fit for duty. Small¬ 
pox raged in the camps, and the dread of it made men slow 
to enter the service. Many foreigners, especially French¬ 
men, came to America at various times to join the Ameri¬ 
can army. The commissioners in Paris (278) were free 
with promises of high positions, which only the strong pro¬ 
tests of Washington and other officers kept Congress from 
fulfilling with equal lavishness. Some of these new-comers 
were mere adventurers, seeking position and pay, but some 
w T ere genuine patriots, willing to work anywhere for the 
American cause. 

289. [The most prominent foreign patriots who aided the Amer¬ 
ican army were Marquis de Lafayette, a young French officer, who be¬ 
came an intimate friend of Washington, and rendered brave service 
for America; John de Kalb, an Alsatian; Thaddeus Kosciusko, a young 


150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Polish noble and a skilled military engineer; Casimir Pulaski, also a 
Pole; and Frederick W. A. Steuben, a Prussian, who had served in the 
Seven Years’ War under Frederick the Great, king of Prussia.] 

290. The British plan for 1777 was to cut off New En¬ 
gland by means of an army made up of British regulars, 
Tories, and Indians, and commanded by General Burgoyne, 
which was to move from Canada by way of Lake Cham¬ 
plain and to connect with the force at New York. (For Bur- 
goyne’s fate, see 306.) At the same time Howe planned to 
attack Philadelphia from the sea. Washington, with vastly 
inferior forces, undertook to defend the city, trying by a 
shovy of energy to raise courage in a people indisposed to¬ 
ward war. 

291. Movements Around Philadelphia.—Since the en¬ 
trance to Delaware Bay was guarded by forts Mifflin and 
Mercer, Howe’s forces entered the Chesapeake, and were 
landed at Elktown. Washington was there to dispute the 
advance through an open country, inhabited chiefly by Roy¬ 
alists and Quakers. His plans were well laid, but the bat¬ 
tle which took place, known as the battle of Chad’s Ford, 
or the battle of the Brandywine (September 11th, 1777), 
through blundering information, ended in a serious defeat. 
Nevertheless Washington maneuvered, and preserved his 
army. It took Howe fifteen days to advance the thirty 
miles to Philadelphia. Howe occupied the city on Sep¬ 
tember twenty-sixth, and all England exulted over the 
capture of the American c; capital.” In reality, the capture 
only gave comfortable winter quarters to the British army. 
Congress moved to Lancaster, and afterwards to York. 

292. Germantown and the Opening of the Delaware.— 

Washington struck a skillful, but unsuccessful blow at a 
British outpost at Germantown (October 4th). Then after 
a six weeks’ struggle, the British opened the Delaware, but 
Howe reported that the country could not be conquered 
without additional armies, and offered his resignation. His 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


151 


army spent the winter in Philadelphia, fiddling, dancing, 
gambling, and getting up amateur theatricals. 

293. Valley Forge. —Washington’s army went into win¬ 
ter quarters at Valley Forge, a place of which it is said that 
our forefathers could not speak without a shudder. The 
days of that winter were for Americans the darkest of the 
war. When the army 'reached the location (December 
19th), there was no protection save a forest, which could 
furnish logs for huts, branches for thatch, and fuel for 
camp fires. Nearly 3,000 men lacked either shoes or other 
clothing. Numbers were sick with fevers and diseases 
resulting from, exposure and lack of food. Washington had 
no supplies. The English had hard money to pay for meat 
and flour, and lived in plenty; but the Americans had only 
the paper money of Congress (343), which was so cheap that 
a general’s pay would not keep him in clothes. Foraging 
parties alone kept the army from dying of starvation. De¬ 
sertions, of course, were frequent. 

294. [Plot Against Washington.—Men judge of merit by success. 
Many men who, in comfortable homes, at safe distances from the enemy, 
judged of Washington’s campaign, thought that somebody else could 
have done better. Washington knew that there were intrigues against 
him; but, with heroic patience, he stayed at his post and his work. A 
council of war, appointed in Congress from among Washington’s ene¬ 
mies, sent a remonstrance against putting the so called army into win¬ 
ter quarters, and wanted an immediate attack on Philadelphia. The 
leading spirit of this council was an Irishman, named Conway, whom 
Congress had appointed Inspector-general of the army. Anonymous 
letters to members of Congress suggested that a Gates, a Lee, or a Con¬ 
way could take those barefooted, half-starved men, and “ in a few weeks 
render them irresistible.” However, the confidence of the soldiers in 
their chief was never shaken, and the eyes of Congress were soon opened 
to the truth. Conway was dropped. Steuben, the experienced Prus¬ 
sian officer, was appointed to the place, and began to organize and dis¬ 
cipline the army. But the feebleness of Congress made relief slow to 
come, and the terrible sufferings of the army at Valley Forge lasted 
through the winter.] 

295. French Alliance. —In May, 1778, news came to 
America that startled the British army in its gaiety and 


152 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


cheered the Americans in their distress. On February sixth 
a treaty had been formally made by the king of France and 
the American representatives in that country, John Adams 
having taken the place of Silas Deane (278), in which the 
independence of the United States was set down as the ob¬ 
ject of the treaty, each party agreeing to fight until that 
independence was acknowledged by the world. France 
was to furnish a fleet of sixteen war vessels and an army 
of 4,000 men. 

296. Philadelphia Abandoned. —The news of the French 

alliance roused the English people against France. A few 
Englishmen saw that the war to subdue America was hope¬ 
less, but as yet there was no general wish to give it up. Gen¬ 
eral Howe’s resignation was accepted and Sir Henry Clinton 
was made commander-in-chief. The British government 
made some futile attempts to reconcile the colonies; at the 
same time, however, Clinton was ordered to abandon Phil¬ 
adelphia, to hold New York, to lay waste Virginia by means 
of war ships, to attack Boston, Providence, and all acces¬ 
sible ports, destroying wharves and shipping, and' to spur 
on the Indians from Detroit to Florida to ravage the fron¬ 
tier. Clinton left Philadelphia, crossing the Delaware (June 
17th, 1778), with more than 17,000 men, closely watched 
by Washington, his Valley Forge heroes now somewhat 
strengthened. The departure of the British army filled 
Philadelphia Tories with dismay, and crowds of them fled, 
following the army and taking all their property that they 
could carry with them. 

297. Monmouth, June 28th, 1778. — Washington fol¬ 
lowed Clinton across New Jersey along a parallel line, 
ready to strike a blow at right angles. When near Mon¬ 
mouth Court-House (now Freehold) Washington arranged 
a plan of attack. Movements of the British army brought 
on an engagement (June 28th), which is known as the bat¬ 
tle of Monmouth. A day’s hard fighting ended with the 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE . 


153 


general result in favor of the Americans. Leaving his dead 
unburied, Clinton withdrew his army in the night, and 
made a hasty march to New York. 



Washington Rebuking Lee. 


(From the celebrated painting by Leutze, in Library of the State University at Berkeley.) 

298. [General Charles Lee commanded the vanguard of the Ameri¬ 
can army, which began the battle. He was careless and inactive, disre¬ 
garding Washington’s orders. His troops, “ the flower of the American 
infantry,” were soon in retreat—“ through their obedience to the com¬ 
mands of a leader who meditated their disgrace.” Washington, with 
the rear of the army, arrived in time to stop the retreat and save his 
troops. He demanded of Lee an explanation of his conduct, and later, 
finding that Lee was doing nothing to retrieve the day, ordered him to 
the rear. Washington rearranged the troops and conducted the battle 
till nightfall. The loss in the battle was about equal on both sides. The 
day was intensely hot, and many died from the effects of the heat. 











154 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


After the battle Lee sent disrespectful letters to Washington, was tried 
by a court-martial, and suspended for a year. He never returned to 
the army, and never was regretted. (The picture represents the first 
meeting of Washington and Lee. Lafayette and Alexander Hamilton 
appear just behind Washington.)] 

299. Siege of Newport, August, 1778.—The French fleet 
of fifteen vessels, commanded by Count d’ Estaing, reached 
America in July, 1778, too late to intercept the English 
vessels which had escaped from Philadelphia to New York. 
Washington had only a feeble army with which to coope¬ 
rate, but a joint movement was planned to attack Newport, 
and to drive the British forces from Rhode Island (286). 
The allies met with unfortunate delays. The British fleet 
was reinforced. A naval contest was beginning, when a ter¬ 
rible storm scattered and damaged both fleets and drenched 
the land forces. The French fleet, after making repairs at 
Boston, sailed off for the defense of French possessions in 
the West Indies. The American troops, which had gath¬ 
ered before Newport, were withdrawn, after fighting one in¬ 
decisive engagement at Quaker Hill (August 29th). 

300. For the next two years Washington fought no 
great battles, but his tireless efforts kept the army recruited, 
his brilliant genius planned important movements, and his 
experienced judgment directed them. The winter of 1778- 
79 was spent by the American army in winter quarters 
that formed a great semicircle around New York, reaching 
from the Connecticut shore of Long Island to the Delaware 
River. In the middle point of the semicircle West Point 
was fortified to defend the Hudson and to keep the line of 
communication from east to west. This line around New 
York was held for the rest of the war. 

[Shut up in New York, Clinton was able only to send out ravaging 
and foraging parties into New Jersey and Connecticut, and, by water, to 
Virginia. The burning of buildings and towns was freely allowed, and 
not a few of the inhabitants were put to the sword. At times, however, 
Clinton himself was made to feel the want of food and fuel. 

301. [Stony Point, July 16th, 1779, was the field of one of the most 
brilliant achievements of the war. An attack on the British garrison 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


155 


posted there was planned by Washington and executed by General 
Anthony Wayne, an officer who had distinguished himself at Mon¬ 
mouth, and by his daring gained the nickname of “ Mad Anthony.” At 
the head of 1,000 chosen men he captured the strong fortress by a night 
assault, and made prisoners of the garrison without firing a single shot, 
and with only a small loss. Wayne did not try to hold Stony Point, 
which was reoccupied by the British, but afterwards abandoned.] 

302. [Paulus Hook.—In August Major Henry Lee, of Virginia, 
known as “ Light Horse Harry,” made a daring night attack on the 
British at Paulus Hook (Jersey City), and took 150 prisoners.] 

7. Burgoyne’s Defeat and the French Alliance. 

For Explanation.—Panic; intrepid; ordnance; vain; mercenary; 
impotent. 

To be Pronounced.—Ma-hoffi; Wyoming; Bon-honFme; Se-nVpis; 
Scarborough (skar / bur-eh). 

303. General Burgoyne’s Advance.—Having followed 
the campaigns of Washington from 1776 to 1780, we return 
to Burgoyne’s invasion of Canada in 1777 (290). This 
seemed at first to promise a British success and an end to 
the war, but patriot strength in the North was underesti¬ 
mated. General Schuyler, commander of the American 
forces in the North, was familiar with the ground (265). 
Abandoning Ticonderoga, he put every possible obstacle in 
the way of the invaders, obstructing roads and destroying 
provisions. Burgoyne reached Ticonderoga in July. From 
that point his advance was difficult and slow. On the first 
of August, however, he had reached the banks of the Hud¬ 
son. 

304. In the Mohawk Valley—The Indian tribes were to 
help the invaders, but this resort to Indian warfare roused 
the indignation of the people of New York, and brought out 
their full strength. Near Fort Stanwix (Rome), the brave 
“ freeholders” of the Mohawk Valley, led by Nicolas Herki¬ 
mer (August 4th), fought a body of mingled Indian and 
English invaders, commanded by General St. Leger, and 
the approach of an American force, under Benedict Arnold 
(267), completed the victory, sending St. Leger’s party off 
to Canada in defeat and panic. 


156 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Burgoyne’s Invasion from Canada— 1777. 

Map Questions.— Make a list of the four battles 
that took place during this invasion, in the order 
in which they were fought, according to the fol¬ 
lowing Model: 


Date. 

Places. 

Result. 

(See text.) 

Why shoi 

lid British troops. 

, seeking to cut off 


New England from the South, invade from Can¬ 
ada, rather than march northward from New 
York? What difficulties lay before Burgoyne? 


305. Benning¬ 
ton. —A detach¬ 
ment detailed 
by Burgoyne to 
capture supplies 
in Vermont, was 
defeated at Ben¬ 
nington August 
sixteenth, by 
farmers from 
Vermont, New 
Hampshire, and 
Western Massa¬ 
chusetts, under 
the standard of 
General Stark 
(257). This was 
“one of the most 
brilliant and 
eventful victo¬ 
ries of the war.” 
It raised the 
courage of Amer¬ 
icans for the de¬ 
struction ofBur- 
goyne’s army. 

306. Main Bat¬ 
tles. — Burgoyne, 
without help from 
New York city, 
and with no sup¬ 
plies for a retreat 
northward,had to 
fight on ground 
selected and forti- 











WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


157 


fied by Kosciusko (289). On August first, Congress had 
elected General Gates to succeed Schuyler, and given him 
full power to call for militia. Washington added to the 
northern army 500 picked riflemen, commanded by the 
intrepid Morgan (279). Two battles were fought—one at 
Freeman’s Farm, near Stillwater (September 19th); the 
other at Bemis Heights (October 7th). The American 
army outnumbered the English, and Burgoyne was crip¬ 
pled past recovery. Howe’s army was busy around Phil¬ 
adelphia, and a relief movement from New York, feebly 
resisted by an American army under Putnam, was too late 
to help Burgoyne. At Saratoga (October 17th), Burgoyne 
surrendered his whole army. Americans were overjoyed 
at their great victory, and Gates won high favor with Con¬ 
gress and the people, although really he had done but very 
little. 

[The total loss of the British in this campaign was nearly 10,000 men. 
The Americans gained thirty-five pieces of the best ordnance, and over 
4,000 muskets.] 

307. [Opinions of Englishmen.— After Burgoyne’s surrender, the 
Earl of Chatham (Pitt) (204), in the English House of Lords, repeated 
what Burke had proclaimed to the House of Commons in 1785: “ My 
Lords,” he said, “ you cannot conquer America. In three years’ cam¬ 
paign we have done nothing and suffered much. You may swell every 
expense, accumulate every assistance you can buy or borrow, traffic 
and barter with every little pitiful German prince, your efforts are for¬ 
ever vain and impotent, doubly so from this mercenary aid on which 
you rely, for it irritates to an incurable resentment. If I were an 
American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed in 
my country, I never would lay down my arms— never, never, NEVER.” 
In the House of Commons Burke continued to speak for the Ameri¬ 
cans, supported now by Charles James Fox, the youngest defender of 
the American cause, and one of the most brilliant of English states¬ 
men. Even now Fox demanded the recognition of American independ¬ 
ence (274).] 

308. Burgoyne’s Defeat Brings French Aid.—From the 
first, France had lent secret aid in arms and money, and 
this was all that the English government had counted on. 


158 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


But many influences brought the king of France to do more. 
The representatives of America and American principles 
were agreeable to the French people. France felt the defeat 
of the last war, and longed for revenge on England. Fred¬ 
eric the Great, King of Prussia, although unable to take 
part himself, freely advised the king of France, saying: 
“ The independence of the colonies will be worth to France 
all that the war will cost.” When the news came of Bur- 
goyne’s defeat, and of Washington’s successful escape from 
Howe, in 1777, the king of France paused only to consult 
with Spain, and then concluded the treaty (295). In En¬ 
gland the news of the alliance had a tremendous effect. No 
one seemed fit to govern except the aged Earl of Chatham, 
whom ill-health had for years kept from the government. 
All the laws offensive to Americans were repealed, and 
commissioners were sent to America (296) offering peace, 
but without independence. Nothing less than full inde¬ 
pendence would now satisfy Americans, and the war went 
on—England on one side; America, aided by France, Spain, 
and finally Holland, on the other. 

309. [Chatham had denounced the war from the first, but he was 
inflexibly against American independence. Bundled up in flannels, 
pale and wasted away, he hobbled to his place in the House of Lords, 
supported on either side by his son, William Pitt, and his son-in-law, 
Lord Mahon. “ My Lords,” he said, “ I rejoice that the grave has not 
closed upon me, that I am still alive to lift up my voice against the dis¬ 
memberment of the ancient and most noble monarchy.” Again at¬ 
tempting to speak in answer to arguments, the great statesman fell in 
the agony of death.] 

310. The war was divided into two periods by the 

treaty with France. In the first period (1775-1778), the 
Americans fought alone; generally defeated in the pitched 
battles, but showing to the world that although their armies 
might be scattered, their cities captured and plundered, 
their country impoverished, they could not be subdued. In 
England during this period there was no enthusiasm for 
the war. No men of great ability came forward to lead the 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


159 


armies or the fleets. The freemen of the land did not re¬ 
cruit the ranks, and King George had to resort to the hire¬ 
ling soldiers whom English money could obtain from the 
petty German states. Thousands of Hessians fought in 
America under the British flag, and many a deed of cruelty 
and robbery is remembered against them. Serving for hire, 
they considered that America was a fit field for plunder, 
and British officers did not try to restrain them. In the 
second period (1778-1781), the spirit of the English peo¬ 
ple was aroused, for now there was a war with France in 
India, on the sea, and wherever English and French in¬ 
terests conflicted, as well as in America. The English 
navy was at once recruited, and it successfully resisted the 
navies of France, Spain, and toward the close of the war, 
of Holland also. But no more great armies were sent to 
America, and no one but King George persisted in the hope 
to force America into submission. At the same time the 
war in America took more savage methods. The destruc¬ 
tion of wharves and shipping was ordered, and plundering 
of private citizens was freely permitted (321, 329). On the 
other hand, it must be said of the Americans, that as their 
hopes brightened through foreign help, their own national 
spirit grew cool, and the tireless efforts of Washington could 
hardly keep his army recruited. Only when a district was 
invaded did the people come forward for vigorous defense. 
When the war was far away business and money making 
kept them at home. 

8. On the Frontier. 

For Explanation.— Upland; neutrals. 

311. Cherokees. —The instinct of the Indian allied him 
with England, for the war seemed to him an opportunity to 
win back his lost hunting grounds. Moreover, the emis¬ 
saries of the English government supplied him with arms 

310. What especially distinguished the first from the second period of the 
war? 




160 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and urged him to fight. In 1776, at the time of the attack 
on Charleston (271), 2,500 Cherokees, accompanied by the 
king’s men, fell upon the people of East Tennessee (240) and 
spread onward to the western settlements of the Carolinas 
and Georgia. They were beaten back by a general rally 
of upland Patriots from Virginia to Georgia, pursued be¬ 
yond the Alleghanies, and “ forced to beg for mercy.” 

312. Wyoming Valley in Northern Pennsylvania was 
the scene of a terrible massacre in 1778. ■ An offshoot from 
Connecticut, the thrifty people of this valley had sent their 
best men to the national army in 1776, and for their own 
defense had built a line of ten forts. To the north were 
tribes of the Iroquois. Their chiefs, bribed by English 
money, desiring revenge for their loss in the Mohawk Valley 
(304), were stung to hatred of the Americans on account of 
the alliance with their old enemies, the French. A band 
of Seneca warriors (one of the Iroquois tribes) entered 
Wyoming with Tory leaders and under the British flag 
(July, 1778). The few brave men left to defend their homes 
were caught in an ambush; 225 scalps were taken in less 
than half an hour; every fort and house was burned, and a 
wailing procession of the survivors, mostly women and chil¬ 
dren, fled over the hills into the eastern settlements. 

313. [Cherry Valley.—A few months later, about thirty people, 
most of them women and children, were murdered in Cherry Valley, 
New York. (See map, page 156.)] 

314. Vengeance was taken on the Senecas the following 
year (1779). Washington sent General Sullivan with 3,000 
men into their country, and their villages and crops were 
burned as far as the Genesee River. The Iroquois, finding 
that the king of England did not protect them, were glad 
to be neutral. 

315. [The secret purpose of Spain during the war was to confine 
the American states within narrow bounds on the south and west. But 


311. In what direction from East Tennessee did the Indians move? 




WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


161 


the power of Spain in the New World, as well as in the Old, was fast 
decaying, and backwoodsmen of Virginia, opening the way for free 
institutions, baffled the efforts of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1776 
organized the county of Kentucky, under the state of Virginia. The 
frontiersmen held their ground against both Spanish and English, and 
in 1780 established Fort Jefferson, on the Mississippi, four miles below 
the mouth of the Ohio.] 


9. Naval Affairs. 

316. American privateers did honorable service, al¬ 
though no match for English fleets. The best work was the 
capture of English supply ships. France assisted in fitting 
out these privateers, and Holland gave them shelter when 
they cruised around the British islands. 

[The number of British vessels captured during the war was about 
700.] 

317. [John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, is one of the most noted 
of the commanders of American vessels. In 1778 he sailed about Great 
Britain in the Ranger , and even ventured land attacks at places on the 
coast. In 1779, in the same waters, he captured many prizes with a 
fleet of five old merchant vessels, fitted out in France by Franklin. In 
September, Jones fell in with the British merchant fleet from the Baltic, 
under convoy of two frigates of the royal navy, the Serapis of forty guns, 
and the Countess of Scarborough of twenty-two guns. Jones’s own ship, 
which he had named the Bonhomme Richard (or good man Richard, in 
honor of Franklin, who had once published “Poor Richard’s Almanac”), 
fought with the Serapis one of the most desperate of sea fights. The 
Serapis was the stronger, but Jones bore down to close range, and suc¬ 
ceeded in fastening the anchor of the Serapis to his own vessel. After 
two hours of bloody fighting, in which both vessels were repeatedly on 
fire, the Serapis nearly a dozen times, the British flag was struck. The 
next day Jones transferred his crew to the Serapis , for the Richard was 
already sinking. Jones’s companions had captured the Countess of 
Scarborough , and Jones found shelter for his prizes in a Dutch harbor.] 

318. French fleets, after the treaty (295), kept the En¬ 
glish navy busy, especially in the West Indies, where both 
countries had possessions to defend. To some extent En¬ 
glish war vessels were withdrawn from the American coast, 
but Clinton, at New York, always had vessels in which he 
could send troops or communicate with other ports. 

ll-H 


162 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


10. Arnold’s Treason. 

319. [Clinton’s Bribery.—From the time of assuming command 
Sir Henry Clinton (296) had reported to the British government that 
he could not successfully carry on the war without new armies, and 
new armies were not to be had. Hopeless of success in open war, Clin¬ 
ton resorted to briberj^, and was encouraged in his efforts by the advice 
from his government, that “ next to the destruction of Washington’s 
army, the gaining over of officers of influence and reputation among 
the troops would be the speediest means of subduing the rebellion.” He 
worked the corruption of one notable man. Benedict Arnold, placed in 
charge of Philadelphia after the removal of the British army, lived ex¬ 
travagantly, and extravagance brought him to dishonesty and treason. 
In the winter of 1778-1779 Clinton took him into pay, Arnold furnishing 
information of American affairs. In February, 1779, he let Clinton know 
that he desired to change to the British side. Arnold’s open prefer¬ 
ence for Tories had disgusted the Patriots of Pennsylvania. Charges 
of misconduct were brought before Congress. Arnold was tried by a 
court-martial, on charges that touched his honor, and according to his 
sentence was reprimanded by Washington, though with the greatest 
forbearance.] 

320. Plot to Betray West Point.—In 1780 there was need 
of a new commander at West Point, an important American 
fortress recently built under the direction of Kosciusko 
(289). Acting in concert with Clinton, Arnold sought and 
obtained the post, urging wounds as an excuse for keeping 
from the field. The plan to betray West Point required a 
messenger to complete the bargain. Major John Andre, a 
young and ambitious English officer, who had been in cor¬ 
respondence with Arnold, undertook to meet him, and boldly 
entered the American lines. The arrangements were made, 
but as Andre could not get back on the English ship on 
which he had come up the Hudson, he set out in disguise, 
provided with a pass from Arnold, to ride on horseback to 
New York. When nearly within the British lines he was 
arrested by three Americans. He was searched, and papers 
revealing the treason were found in his boots. Through the 
stupidity of an American officer, word of Andre’s capture 
was sent to Arnold, who escaped to a British ship. Andre 
was tried by a court-martial of American officers, sem 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


163 


tenced, and hanged as a spy. The plot had failed at the 
last moment, but the British government kept its promise, 
giving Arnold a commission as brigadier-general, £6,315 as 
compensation for pretended losses, and pensions for his 
family. 

11. War in the South— 1778-1781. 

For Explanation.—Pillaged; profligate; wreaked; paroles; cowed; 
disposed; malignant; obnoxious; corral. 

To be Pronounced.—Che'raw; de Grasse; Ca-taw'ba; Rochambeau 
(ro-shong-bo). 

321. Capture of Savannah and Attempt on Charles¬ 
ton.—For 1778 the English government planned an ex¬ 
tensive campaign in the South. “ Large numbers of the 
inhabitants,” it was said, “would doubtless flock to the 
standard of the king,” and the English rule would easily 
he restored as far north as Virginia. Little was done until 
after the summer heats, but Savannah was easily captured, 
December 29th, 1778. The plundering of the country by 
the British army brought out the strength of South Caro¬ 
lina for the defense of Charleston, the next point of attack. 
General Benjamin Lincoln was placed in command of the 
American army in the South, and on his approach the Brit¬ 
ish retired into Georgia, having pillaged far and wide, and 
having destroyed what it was impossible to carry away. 

322. [An attempt to recover Savannah (September, 1779), by the 
French fleet commanded by Count d’ Estaing, aided by Americans 
under Lincoln, proved unsuccessful. The American loss was heavy; 
that of the French still greater. The French fleet sailed off to France, 
and the remains of the American army fell back to Charleston.] 

323. Fall of Charleston, 1780.—Sir Henry Clinton, com¬ 
mander at New York, who had failed to capture Charleston 
in 1776 (271), decided to try again, and withdrawing his 
troops from Rhode Island sailed from New York on Christ¬ 
mas day, 1779. His fleet was scattered by a storm and 
damaged by privateers; still his force was strong enough 
to capture the city (February 12th, 1780), as well as Gen- 


164 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

eral Lincoln and his army of 2,000 men who had unwisely 
remained inside. Again the British army found rich plun¬ 
der, and spared nothing; carrying off the rich plate of the 
planters and seizing their negroes to send them to the West 
Indies to be sold. To complete the outrage, Clinton at¬ 
tempted to force Americans into the support of the king’s 
government. 



War in the South. 


Map Questions.—Of the three sections of country embraced in this 
map—lowland, upland, and mountain—in which did most of the battles 
occur? What reasons for this can you suggest? Who commanded 









WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


165 


the Americans at Camden? Who superseded him? Taking com¬ 
mand at what place? Which way did the Americans travel when 
attacking? When retreating? What is the last march shown of Corn- 
W’allis? Where do Greene’s campaigns end? What battle did Morgan 
fight? Write the military events in the order of their dates, by the fol¬ 
lowing Model: 


Date. 

Event. 

Result of 
Battle. 
(See Text.) 

1. December 28th, 1780. 

2. 

Savannah captured by the Brit¬ 
ish. 


3. 

Gates takes command at Hills¬ 
borough. . .. 


4 

5. 

G. 

7. 

8. 

Battle of Camden fought. . . . 

British vic¬ 
tory. 

9. 

10. 




324. [Lord Cornwallis, a rival of Clinton, an able officer and also 
most determined to root out “ rebellion,” was placed in command in 
the South (1780). South Carolina was practically subdued, and Corn¬ 
wallis proposed to be the conqueror of North Carolina and Virginia. 
He had only a small army, and vigorous steps were taken to induce the 
weak or compel the profligate to enter the service of the king. Com¬ 
munication was kept up by a chain of forts at Georgetown, Charleston, 
Beaufort, and Savannah, along the sea; and inland at Augusta, Ninety- 
Six, and Camden.] 

325. Partisan Warfare. —The Patriots were quick to re¬ 
taliate the outrages of the British invaders and their Tory 
helpers, and thus civil strife raged in the South, the most 
savage and destructive of the war. Bands of Patriot exiles 
gathered around brave leaders like Thomas Sumter and 
Francis Marion, and wreaked unceasing vengeance on the 











166 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


plunderers of the land. They would strike suddenly, fight 
with desperate courage, and be off again to safe hiding 
places in the mountains. The personal dash, courage, and 
narrow escapes of these heroes form the most exciting chap¬ 
ter in the history of the war. 

326. Gates, the American Commander in North Caro¬ 
lina.—Washington sent all troops that could be spared, for 
the help of the South against the invasion of Cornwallis. 
Virginia nobly spared her own defenders for the protection 
of North Carolina. Washington desired that General Na¬ 
thanael Greene should be placed in command of the south¬ 
ern army, but contrary to his recommendation, Congress 
appointed General Gates (306). Joining his army at Hills¬ 
borough, Gates chose to march in a direct line on Camden, 
occupied by a part of the British army commanded by Lord 
Rawdon. The advance of Gates raised the courage of 
Carolinians, and they gathered to join him, some, even, who 
had been forced into British service, escaping to swell the 
number. Cornwallis hastened up from Charleston for the 
defense of Camden, and skillfully disposed his men for the 
battle (August 16th, 1780). 

327. Gates Defeated at Camden.—Gates ordered his 
men into a fight, in which he took pains not to expose him¬ 
self, and from which he disappeared at the first flight of 
his untrained militia. The battle, however, was nobly borne 
by experienced troops from Maryland and Delaware, led by 
the brave Baron de Kalb (289), who was mortally wounded. 
The British had the victory, although “ their great loss,” 
wrote Marion (325), “was equal to defeat.” 

• [From Camden Gates rode alone to Hillsborough, making 200 miles 
in three days and a half, and leaving his army behind him. In Octo¬ 
ber Congress put Greene in his place, whom Washington introduced to 
his friends in the South as “ a man of abilities, bravery, and coolness.”] 

328. Cornwallis and the People.—The battle at Camden 
made Cornwallis the chief figure in the British army in 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


167 


America, and his government hoped for success through 
him. According to his plan of conquest, Cornwallis began 
a reign of terror in the Carolinas. The destruction of prop¬ 
erty and of life was terrible. Paroles were not respected; 
no faith was kept with prisoners, no mercy shown the de¬ 
fenseless, and none were safe save those in the active service 
of the king. Cold-blooded assassinations were committed, 
even by men who held commissions in the king’s army. 
But the more cruel and barbarous the methods of the 
king’s servants in the South, the stronger grew the Patriot 
cause among the people. 

329. [British treatment of prisoners was extremely cruel through¬ 
out the war. Prisoners were generally confined in worn-out ships, 
where scant room, food, and clothing made them the victims of disease. 
There were several prison ships at New York; one of which, the Jersey , 
became notorious. Twenty-five hundred prisoners from Charleston 
were confined on one ship in Charleston harbor. In thirteen months 
one third of the number died from malignant fevers. Other captives 
were forced to serve on British ships.] 

330. [King’s Mountain, 1780.— After the battle of Camden, Corn¬ 
wallis sent 1,100 men to arouse and arm Tories, and to disperse Patriots 
in western North Carolina. This party was surrounded at King’s 
Mountain (October 8th, 1780), by Patriot riflemen gathered from North 
Carolina and the western frontier. The British party was completely 
defeated, 800 being made prisoners. Many of them were Tories, the 
most obnoxious of whom were hanged, after the example set by Corn¬ 
wallis. The Patriots had gathered at King’s Mountain in the spirit 
in which they had gathered at Concord. The victory cowed the Tories, 
gave fresh zeal to the Patriots, and turned the course of the war in the 
South, as the victory at Bennington had done at the North in Bur- 
goyne’s invasion (305). 

331. The Army after Camden.—General Greene as¬ 
sumed command of the remains of Gates’s army at Char¬ 
lotte (December 4th, 1780). He found 970 regulars and 
1,013 militia; but such was their condition, that Greene 
wrote to his wife, “ I have been in search of the army I am 
to command, but without much success, having found only 
a few half-starved soldiers, remarkable for nothing but pov- 


168 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


erty and distress.” He made himself familiar with the 
country, and got together all possible recruits. 

332. Morgan at the Cowpens, 1781. — Advancing his 
camp to Cheraw, Greene sent Morgan, at that time the 
ablest commander of light troops in the world, with 600 
men to rouse the country west of the Catawba. To meet 
the danger of a Whig uprising, Cornwallis sent his favorite 
officer, Tarleton, to destroy Morgan’s corps. Tarleton soon 
overtook the Americans; but Morgan, by his wise choice of 
ground and skillful management, utterly defeated the Brit¬ 
ish force (January 17th, 1781), at the Cowpens, a place so 
named on account of a corral built there for marking cattle. 
Tarleton, with only a few companions, escaped to carry the 
news of disaster to Cornwallis. 

333. Guilford Court House, 1781.—Cornwallis at once set 
out to catch Morgan before he could unite with Greene; but 
Morgan and Greene were too quick for him. The two divis¬ 
ions were united, yet not strong enough for battle; they 
fell back to the northward; the Catawba, the Yadkin, and 
finally the Dan being crossed, with Cornwallis in close pur¬ 
suit, but delayed at each river by a rise of the stream, just 
after the Americans had forded. Finally at the Dan, Corn¬ 
wallis gave up the chase, and turned hack to Hillsborough. 
Greene, having been reinforced by militia, returned from 
Virginia, and with an army superior in number, fought 
Cornwallis at Guilford Court House (March 15th, 1781). 
The inexperienced American militia fled as at Camden 
(327), leaving the battle to be fought by the regular troops. 
Cornwallis won the field; but so great was his loss that he 
could not follow up his victory, and he retired toward the 
sea. Greene followed, and recovered all of North Carolina, 
except Wilmington, where Cornwallis lodged the remnants 
of his force (April 7th). 

334. Cornwallis to the North, Greene to the South.—At 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


109 


Wilmington, Cornwallis received more troops by sea from 
Charleston, and not willing to acknowledge the failure of 
his plans, set out at the end of April with 1,435 men for the 
-Chesapeake. Greene had determined to carry the war into 
South Carolina. His force numbered only 1,800, and the 
risks were great. Yet, cooperating with the Carolina lead¬ 
ers, Sumter, Marion (325), and Pickens, he broke the British 
line of communications, fought a fierce battle at Hobkirk 
Hill (April 25th, 1781), unsuccessfully besieged Ninety- 
Six, and after resting his men among the hills on the San¬ 
tee, fought the last formal battle in the South, at Eutaw 
Springs (September 8th). Both the battles are classed as 
British victories; but the effect was to make the British 
give up all their posts, except Charleston and Savannah. 

[Greene said: “ We fight, get beaten, and fight again.” He had been 
in command less than two months, and the three southern states had 
been recovered, except the three places on the coast, and of these Wil¬ 
mington was soon abandoned. In gratitude for Greene’s services, South 
Carolina voted him an estate. Georgia added 5,000 guineas, and North 
Carolina 24,000 acres of land in Tennessee.] 

12. The Last Campaign, 1781. 

For Explanation.—Devastation; vigilant; sally. 

335. The War in Virginia.—In James Otis (218) and 
Patrick Henry (224), Massachusetts and Virginia had each 
an apostle of freedom. Their statesmen worked together 
in the committees of Congress. From one state came the 
leader of the American armies; from the other, the largest 
number of recruits. In Massachusetts was shed the first 
blood of the war; the soil of Virginia was to be stained with 
the last. In January Clinton had sent Benedict Arnold 
(320) to hold a position on the Chesapeake, and to harass 
Virginia. Thomas Jefferson, now governor of Virginia, 
called on the militia, but so many had gone for the protec¬ 
tion of North Carolina that no sufficient force could be gath¬ 
ered at home. Richmond was burned. To protect Virginia 


170 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and to catch Arnold, whom Americans longed to hang, 
Washington sent a force under Lafayette by land, and 
asked the French fleet to cut off escape by water. The 
fleet moved too slowly, and the plan failed, for Lafayette 
was not strong enough to operate alone. On the arrival of 
Cornwallis in Virginia, Arnold was ordered back to New 
York. 

336. [Arnold.—After joining the British, Arnold had increased his 
infamy by writing insolent letters to Washington, inviting all Amer¬ 
icans to desert their colors, and by urging the British to break up the 
American army through bribery. He displayed a character so sordid 
that British officers shrank from serving with him. After the close of 
the war he spent the rest of his life in England, without the respect of 
his fellow men, and with no country to call his own.] 

337. Cornwallis began the devastation of Virginia, but 
was ordered by Clinton, now seriously threatened in New 
York by Washington, to seek and fortify some strong posi¬ 
tion near the sea, that he might be ready to sail to Clinton’s 
assistance. Cornwallis selected and fortified Yorktown. 

338. Siege of Yorktown, 1781. —Washington arranged 
with De Grasse, commander of a French fleet from the 
West Indies, to blockade the Chesapeake. Washington’s 
army was moved southward quickly, crossing the Hudson 
on August thirtieth and reaching Yorktown late in Septem¬ 
ber. Already De Grasse had arrived and had blocked up 
the James River, shutting off Cornwallis’ escape. More 
French ships brought troops and cannon from Newport. 
On September seventeenth Cornwallis had written to Clin¬ 
ton: “This place is in no state for defense; if you cannot 
relieve me at once, you must be prepared to hear the worst.” 
But Clinton had been deceived by Washington’s maneu¬ 
vers, expecting him to make New York the point of attack, 
until it was too late to interfere. The allied armies drove 
the British within the Yorktown fortifications, chiefly rude 
earthworks (September 28th). Cannonading began (Octo¬ 
ber 9th), and in two days the British were scarcely able to 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE . 


171 


return the fire. On the fourteenth two redoubts were 
taken by assault—one by the Americans, the other by the 
French. A spirited sally on the morning of the sixteenth 
failed. On the seventeenth Cornwallis called for a cessation 
of hostilities, and two days afterwards surrendered. 


The Siege of Yorktown. 



Map Questions.—On what natural division of land is Yorktown 
located? By what river? What prevented Cornwallis from escaping 
across York River? What from escaping in his ships? What pre¬ 
vented his crossing the peninsula to James River? Can you see any 
way in which he could escape except by overpowering his enemies? 
Beginning on the west, north of York River, name, in their order, the 
forces by which he was surrounded. 












172 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


339. The surrender of Yorktown, October 19th, 1781, 

practically ended the war. In America there was rejoicing 
at the news. Congress voted special honors to Washington 



1. Lafayette. 2. Cornwallis. 3. Greene. 4 . Warren. 

































WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


173 


and the French commanders, and thanked all officers and 
troops. In England Lord North received the news “ as he 
would have taken a bullet in his breast,” exclaiming, “ It 
is all over.” Greene’s army in the South was strengthened. 
, Washington returned to his old position around New York. 

[The British continued to hold New York, Charleston, and Savan¬ 
nah, but there were no more battles. There was, however, considerable 
fighting on the frontier against Indians incited by Tories.] 

13. The Close of the War. 

For Explanation.—Negotiations; confiscating; depreciation; mag¬ 
nanimous; redeem; furloughs; Cincinnati. 

340. Treaty of Paris, 1783.—The final treaty of peace 
was delayed until September, 1783, by tedious negotiations, 
largely between the European nations. Then a treaty was 
signed at Paris, by which Great Britain acknowledged the 
independence of the United States. The treaty admitted 
the title of the United States to all land between the Mis¬ 
sissippi and the Atlantic, from Canada and the Great Lakes 
to Florida. Great Britain retained Canada, and transferred 
Florida to Spain, who owned the Louisiana territory also 
(210). Thus the neighbors of the United States were Great 
Britain on the north, with only a roughly marked boundary 
line on the northeast, and Spain on the south and west, with 
the southern boundary fixed at the thirtieth parallel. 

341. [The Tories had fought for England, and had given assistance 
and shelter to the enemies of America. Most of the states had passed 
laws confiscating their property. When the contest ended, there was 
little for them to enjoy in the United States. Numbers left the coun¬ 
try, moving to Canada, to the West Indies, and to England. When the 
passions of the war had passed away, some returned to live again in 
the land of their birth.] 

342. “Continental Money.”—The demand for money to 
conduct the war, had been, for the Americans, a demand 
harder to meet than that for men. Congress adopted the 
ready expedient of issuing a paper continental currency, in 
the form of “ bills of credit,” or promises to pay coin. These 


174 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


promises could not be fulfilled until the war was over, and 
some regular plan arranged for a revenue. At the begin¬ 
ning of the war, people readily accepted these “ bills of 
credit” as money, and at one time Congress had to hire 
twenty-eight men to put signatures on them, in order to 
get them oat fast enough. With the third year of the war 
depreciation began; the “continental money” became every 
year more plentiful, and every year was worth less and less. 
The British flooded the country with counterfeit bills. Crops 
were poor in 1779-1780, making food scarce. Before the 
end of the war paper money was almost worthless; cash 
loans from Europe alone afforded relief. 

343. [Paper Money.—Colonies had issued paper money before in¬ 
dependence, and their experience ought to have taught Congress that 
unless some limit was put to the amount of paper currency, and some 
plan arranged for future payment, there would be trouble. But then, 
as now, men were influenced by the impression that a government 
stamp had power in itself to give value to a slip of paper; that if a'shoe¬ 
maker would sell a pair of shoes for five silver dollars, and Congress 
ordered him to sell the same shoes for five paper dollars, he would have 
to do it. Congress made laws to regulate prices, but as the length of the 

• war grew greater, and the day of redeeming the paper promises seemed 
further off, people became reluctant to receive them in trade. Moreover, 
the war interfered with the raising of crops, and the making of things 
for sale, and when the “ paper money ” became cheaper, everything else 
became scarcer, and therefore dearer. It is outside the power of any 
government to control prices, and during the war they rose enormously. 
Although over $357,000,000 of paper money was issued, the expense of 
the war, in coin, was about $135,000,000. The cheapness of the paper 
money is shown in the expression, “Not worth a continental,” meaning 
not worth a dollar of continental money.] 

344. The pay of the American army had consisted 
chiefly of promises, which for years there was no govern¬ 
ment strong enough to fulfill. Had not Washington’s men 
shared the spirit of their commander, the army would have 
gone to pieces utterly, long before peace permitted disband¬ 
ing. Twice there was tumult, once in 1781, again in 1783, 
when men proposed to go in arms and force pay from Con¬ 
gress, which had little to give. These tumults are some- 


WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


175 


times called revolts or mutinies. Suppressed as they were 
without force, they hardly deserve such names. Washing¬ 
ton by his own desire served without pay, except to receive 
hack what he had taken from his own pocket for necessary 
expenses, of which he presented an exact account at the 
end of the war. 

345. The Disbanding of the Army.—Soldiers were al¬ 
lowed to go home on furloughs all through 1783. Then a 
final proclamation fixed November third as the time for 
“absolute discharge” of the whole army. At New York, 
Washington bade an affectionate farewell to his officers 
who had served with him so long and so nobly, and then 
surrendering his commission to Congress, retired to his 
home at Mount Vernon, on the Potomac River. The sol¬ 
diers became scattered and lost in the country for which 
they had fought. 

[Under the name of “ Cincinnati,” officers of the army formed a “ so¬ 
ciety of friends ” to aid one another, and to cherish union between the 
states.] 

346. [The spirit of the war lived in Washington, “calm in the 
midst of conspiracy; serene against the open foe before him and the 
darker enemies at his back. Washington inspiring order and spirit 
in troops hungry and in rags; stung by ingratitude, but betraying no 
anger, and ever ready to forgive; in defeat invincible, magnanimous in 
conquest, and never so sublime as on that day when he laid down his 
victorious sword and sought his noble retirement—here indeed is a 
character to admire and revere: a life without a stain, a fame without 
a flaw.”— Thackeray .] 


176 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Principal Military Events of 


Copy and complete the following Review of principal 






Com- 

Place. 

Event. 

Date. 


American 
(or French). 

1. Lexington and Concord. 

Skirmish. 

Apr. 19.'j 

1 


2. Ticonderoga. 

3. Bunker Hill. 

4. Boston. 

Surprise. 

Battle. 

Siege. 


’75. 

1 


5. Canada. 

6. Charleston. 

7. East Tennessee. 

8. Long Island. 

f Harlem. ) 

Q J White Plains, j 
’ ] Ft. Washington. 

L Ft. Lee. 

10. Trenton. 

Invasion. 
Attack. 
Indian raid. 
Battle. 

Skirmishes. 

Assault. 

Retreat. 

1 

1 

(■’76. 

1 

l 

J 


11. Princeton. 

12. Mohawk Valley. 

13. Bennington. 

14. Brandywine Creek. 

15. Freeman’s Farm. 

(Stillwater.) 

16. Germantown. 

(Ft. Mifflin.) 

(Ft. Mercer.) 

17. Bemis Heights. 


J 

■’77. 

1 

I 


18. Monmouth C. H. 

19. Wyoming Valley. 

(Cherry Valley.) 

20. Newport. 

21. Savannah. 


j 

1 

L’78. 


22. Western New York. 

23. North Sea. 

24. Stony Point. 

(Paulus Hook.) 

25. Savannah. 


j 

i,a 


26. Charleston. 

27. Carolinas. 

28. Camden. 

29. King’s Mountain. 


i 

j 

[•’80. 


30. Cowpens. 

31. Guilford C. H. 

32. Hobkirk Hill. 

33. Ninety-Six. 

34. Eutaw Springs. 

35. Yorktown. 


* 

•’81. 



















WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 


177 


the War for Independence. 

Military Events of the War for Independence. 


manders. 

Victory 

for. 

Greater 
loss for. 


British. 

Results. 

Pitcairn and 
Percy. 

Americans. 

\ ' 

British. 

} 

} 

America aroused and the war 
commenced. 



} 

} 



12-H 
















HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 





















FORMA TION OF A NA TIONAL G 0 VERNMENT. 179 


CHAPTER XVII. 

1783-1789. 

The Formation of a National Government. 

For Explanation. —Title; cede; vague; Nestor; ratify. 


Outline of Paragraph 347.— Articles of Confederation not a national 
constitution; conveyed no sovereignty; represented states, not the 
people; each state one vote; assent of nine states sometimes required; 
no provision about foreign trade; taxes levied on states, Congress no 
power to enforce collection; states to obey, no power to enforce obedi¬ 
ence; no executive, no courts. Nevertheless of great benefit, providing 
for the present time and teaching the people how to do better. 

(Outline other paragraphs in the same way.) 


347. The Articles of Confederation were not suitable for 
the constitution of a national government. Under them 
there could be no true government, for they conveyed to 
Congress no true sovereignty. The Congress of the Confed¬ 
eration represented thirteen states, and not the people of 
America. In this Congress votes were taken by states, the 
members from one state casting one vote. For certain acts, 
as making war and coining money, the assent of nine states 
was necessary. There was no provision for regulating trade 
with foreign nations. National expenses were to be paid by 
an assessment levied upon the states in proportion to their 
taxable property. Every state was expected to obey the 
laws of Congress—but there was no power in Congress to 
enforce obedience. Congress had no means to collect the 
taxes it assessed. 

[The government of the Confederation had no regular executive de¬ 
partment for the enforcement of law, and no courts for the adjustment 
of disputes. “ The Confederation, notwithstanding its defects, was of 
extended benefit. It met the pressing wants of the Union, and thus 
strengthened it. It conferred a great educational service through the 
experience of its defects; and it carried the nation along until a more 
efficient system was provided for.”] 

348. Causes of Dissension. —The enthusiasm of war had 
kindled a national feeling that kept the states united as 




180 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


long as the war lasted. At its close, quarrels and dissen¬ 
sions could not be prevented, and could be remedied only by 
a competent national government. The army was unpaid, 
and the states, burdened by debts of their own, were slow 
to take upon themselves any part of the common load, and 
naturally quarrelsome about their shares. At the close of 
the war, settlers, many of them ex-soldiers, set out from the 
older locations to find new homes on the lands beyond the 
Alleghanies. But to whom did these Western lands belong, 
or who had a right to give a title to them? The vague 
terms of colonial charters, instead of establishing definite 
bounds for the American states, only furnished grounds for 
jealousy and dispute. The claims of several states over¬ 
lapped one another, and serious quarrels were sure to arise, 
when one state began to sell land claimed by another. 

349. [Western Claims.—New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland were definitely bounded by their 
charters. New York was not limited on the west. Massachusetts, Con¬ 
necticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, claim¬ 
ing at first to extend to the Pacific, limited themselves at the Mississippi 
River after Louisiana was ceded to Spain in 1763. These rival claims to 
western land were gradually settled by states giving up their title in 
favor of the United States. New York was the first to act, giving up 
her claim in 1780. Virginia followed in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785, 
Connecticut in 1786, South Carolina in 1787, North Carolina in 1790, and 
Georgia in 1802. Connecticut retained for a time a large tract of land 
in the northeastern part of Ohio, which thus came to be known as the 
Western Reserve.] 

350. [The Northwest Territory, including all the ceded land north 
of the Ohio, was organized in 1787. A government was established for 
the territory, a governor and judges to be appointed by Congress, and 
a legislature to be elected by the people of the territory, after they had 
reached a required number. The law establishing the Northwest Ter¬ 
ritory is known as the Ordinance of 1787. It forever prohibited slavery 
within the territory, and provided for the encouragement of public 
schools, popular government, and the future formation of states.] 

351. [Regulation of Commerce. — Englishmen did not believe that 
the American states could maintain their union, and proceeded to en¬ 
force restrictions on American trade. British garrisons were retained 
in American frontier forts, for the purpose of controlling the fur trade. 


FORMATION OF A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 


181 


American goods were excluded from the British islands in the West 
Indies,unless carried in British ships. “They mean,” wrote John Ad¬ 
ams, representing Americans at the British court, “ that Americans 
should have no ships, nor sailors, to annoy their trade.” An effort was 
made in Congress, in 1785, to secure a general and uniform trade law 
throughout the Union, which should favor American ships and levy 
duties upon imported goods. The effort failed, because a few states, 
having no ships, feared that they might be giving a monopoly to those 
that had ships. In the absence of any general trade laws, states began 
to act for themselves. New York established a custom-house, turning 
over the duties collected into her own treasury, and thus acting as a 
thoroughly independent state. Some of the states began to levy duties 
upon the imports from other states.] 

352. Discussion of a New Government.—The leading 

men of the country clearly perceived the need of an effi¬ 
cient general government. In 1783 Washington wrote to 
Lafayette: “To form a new constitution that will give con¬ 
sistency, stability, and dignity to the Union and sufficient 
powers to the great council of the nation, for general pur¬ 
poses, is a duty incumbent upon every man who wishes 
well to his country.” Before surrendering his commission 
(345), Washington addressed a circular letter to the gov¬ 
ernor of every state, by him to be placed before every legis¬ 
lature. “ It is indispensable,” he wrote, “ to the happiness 
of the individual states, that there should be somewhere a 
supreme power to regulate and govern the general concerns 
of the confederated republic. . . . Whatever measures 

have a tendency to dissolve the Union, or to violate or les¬ 
sen the sovereign authority, ought to be considered as hos¬ 
tile to the liberty and independence of America.” Among 
all the great men who studied and discussed plans for a 
general government, James Madison of Virginia (429), and 
Alexander Hamilton of New York are distinguished as men 
who clearly understood the needs of the time and labored 
actively for reform. 

353. [Alexander Hamilton was born on one of the West Indies in 
1757. At the age of fifteen he was sent to New York to be educated and 
he entered Columbia College (160). Two years later, in a brilliant and 


182 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


stirring speech, he “ electrified a public meeting” at New York, called to 
denounce the Boston Port Bill (243). He displayed remarkable intel¬ 
lectual powers, and became at once one of the ablest writers in the 
American cause. At twenty he was a trusted officer on Washington’s 
staff', “and to the proud day at Yorktown was as chivalrous, generous, 
and gallant a soldier as ever drew his sword for his country.” He was 
an acknowledged admirer of the British form of government, and the 
plan which he favored for the United States contained life-tenure for 
all the high offices, legislative and executive, tending toward monarchy 
rather than democracy. He died at Weehawken, New Jersey, in 1804, 
shot in a duel into which he had been drawn by Aaron Burr, then Vice- 
President of the United States.] 

354. A convention to reform the Articles of Confedera¬ 
tion had been several times suggested from 1780 to 1786. 
The legislature of Virginia, in 1786, invited the other states 
to elect delegates to consider reforms. Delegates were 
elected in most of the states, but those from five states only 
came together at Annapolis in September, 1786. As the 
representation was so unsatisfactory, no business was under¬ 
taken. All the states, however, were urged to send dele¬ 
gates to meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and Congress 
sanctioned the movement. 

->r", 

355. [“ Shays’ Rebellion.” —Throughout the land people were bur¬ 
dened with debts contracted during the war. Forced collections through 
the courts and the imprisonment of debtors caused great distress, and 
debtors were disposed to resist the law officers, in Massachusetts there 
was bitter opposition to forced collections, and for a time the courts 
were powerless. In the western part of the state, during the winter of 
1786-7, this opposition grew into an armed insurrection, known as 
“ Shays’ Rebellion,” from the name of the principal leader, Daniel Shays. 
The insurrection was easily subdued by a military force called out by 
the governor of Massachusetts. It was, however, an uprising of people 
against a government established by themselves. By the enemies of 
the country it was taken as a sign of anarchy; to Americans it was a 
valuable lesson, teaching the need of a national government.] 

356. The Constitutional Convention assembled May 
fourteenth, but a majority of the states not being repre¬ 
sented, adjournments were taken until the twenty-fifth. 
On that day the delegates present organized by electing 
George Washington President. Sixty-five delegates had 


FORMATION OF A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 183 


been elected, representing all the states except Rhode 
Island, which took no part in the convention. Ten dele¬ 
gates did not take their places, and many dropped out 
during the long session. The states showed the greatest 
wisdom in sending their ablest men to this convention. 
They were men distinguished by their services during the 
war period, both in Congress and in the state governments. 
The delegates from Virginia, headed by Madison, brought 
with them the rough draft of a National Constitution. The 
sessions of the convention were secret. 

[Franklin was the Nestor of the convention. Now at the age of 
eighty-one, he had been prominent in public affairs since the Albany 
convention (197). Three members had been in the Stamp Act Con¬ 
gress ; seven in the Congress of 1774; eight had signed the Declaration 
of Independence. Eighteen were members of Congress at the time, and 
only twelve had never served in Congress. “ Nine were graduates of 
Princeton (160), four of Yale, three of Harvard (100), two of Columbia, 
one of Pennsylvania.” Several were from William and Mary’s, and sev¬ 
eral more had been educated at English or Scotch colleges. Many had 
made careful study of forms of government, and were familiar with the 
best writings on the subject. They were “ the goodliest fellowship of 
lawgivers whereof this world holds record.” 

357. Difficulties before the Convention.—The early ses¬ 
sions of the convention were far from being quiet and har¬ 
monious. It was soon decided to throw aside the Articles 
of Confederation entirely and to prepare a new Constitution. 
Then all the errors, prejudices, and jealousies of the vari¬ 
ous states were brought to the surface. The smaller states 
feared being overwhelmed by the larger ones. The question 
of allowing representation for slaves provoked stormy dissen¬ 
sion. At one time Washington wrote that he almost des¬ 
paired of a favorable issue to the proceedings. Franklin 
showed the necessity of compromise, and compromise be¬ 
came one of the foundation stones of the American govern¬ 
ment. 

[During the time of stormy debate, Franklin, in an impressive speech, 
moved that the convention be opened each morning with prayer. “ The 


184 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


longer I live,” he said, “ the more convincing proofs I see that God gov¬ 
erns in the affairs of men.” His motion was not voted on, but a better 
spirit thenceforth prevailed. At another time, speaking of the diversity 
of opinions, he said that when a carpenter is making a broad table and 



1. Hamilton 


2. Madison. 


3. Morris. 


4. Franklin 







FORMATION OF A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 185 


the edges of his boards do not fit, he planes a little from each and 
makes a good joint. So in the convention, opposite sides must each 
give up a little in order to gain a just settlement.] 

358. Difficulties Removed. —It was early decided to es¬ 
tablish a national Congress of two houses (Senate and House 
of Representatives). The question of representation was 
settled by allowing one representative to each state for every 
40,000 (changed later in the session to 30,000) inhabitants, 
three fifths of all slaves being added to the number of white 
persons in making the apportionment. The claims of small 
states were recognized by giving to each an equal vote in 
the Senate. 

[The question, whether the chief executive should be one or more, 
and, after one was decided upon, how he should be elected and how long 
he should serve, provoked prolonged debate. The adjustment of power 
between the general government and the states was the most difficult 
problem before the convention. Hamilton would have made the states 
clearly dependent upon the general government, by having Congress 
appoint state governors, etc. Madison, although desiring to maintain 
the states, wished Congress to have a negative on state laws. These 
views did not prevail. The majority thought to leave the states sov¬ 
ereign in their own sphere and at the same time to erect the general 
government above them, supreme in all matters of national concern. 
Around this question of the relation of the states to the general govern¬ 
ment centers the political history of the United States from 1787 to 3865.] 

359. The Constitution Completed. —The convention did 
not conclude its labors until the middle of September. The 
result of their work was the Constitution which Americans 
still honor and obey. It was to be submitted through Con¬ 
gress and the state legislatures, to the vote of the people in 
each state. When the people in nine states had voted in 
favor of it Congress was to appoint the time and place for 
holding elections for the new offices. The Constitution was 
signed on September 17th, 1787, all members then in at¬ 
tendance appending their names, except three, Edmund 
Randolph and George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge 
Gerry of Massachusetts. Each of these had taken an active 
part in the convention, but felt dissatisfied with the result. 


186 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Hamilton took a broader view: “ No man’s ideas,” he said, 
“ are more remote from the plan than my own are known to 
be; but is it possible to deliberate between anarchy and 
convulsion on one side, and the chance of good to be ex¬ 
pected from the flan on the other ? ” The Constitution was 
a nobler work than the majority in the beginning had dared 
hope to make. Yet at this day we may say that no one of 
those men fully realized the grandeur of the work they had 
accomplished. 

360. Before the People. —The newspapers quickly made 
the country acquainted with the work of the convention, 
and discussion of the document at once began. Farmers, 
mechanics, and merchants in general welcomed it; but it 
was opposed by many men of ability and influence, who 
thought that the-proposed government would injure the 
already existing state governments, which they knew and 
loved. Thus arose a division of the people. Those who 
favored ratification of the Constitution took the name of 
Federalists; those who preferred to reject it were known as 
Anti-Federalists. Many leading statesmen in all the states 
were among the Federalists. A few, however, like Patrick 
Henry, of Virginia, and George Clinton, of New York, were 
violent Anti-Federalists. Washington and Franklin and 
John Hancock cast all their great influence in favor of the 
Constitution. Hamilton and Madison worked in state con¬ 
vention, and argued in the newspapers, publishing a series 
of eighty-five essays in a New York newspaper, in which the 
whole Constitution was explained and defended. 

[These eighty-five essays, collected and published as a book, are now 
known as “The Federalist,” one of the great works in American politi¬ 
cal literature. Six essays were written by John Jay (369).] 

361. Adopted. —Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jer¬ 
sey were the first states to ratify the Constitution. New 
Hampshire has the honor of casting the decisive vote, she 
being the ninth state to ratify. Her approval was given in 


FORMATION OF A NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 187 


June, 1788. New York and Virginia followed soon after 
New Hampshire. Rhod e. Island and North Carolina with¬ 
held their approval until after the Constitution went into 
force. On July 2d, 1788, the President of the Congress of 
the Confederation declared that the Constitution of the 
United States had been adopted. Preparations to put the 
new government into operation began at once. 

[Elections for members of the first Congress and for President and 
Vice-President were held according to directions of Congress. When 
the votes of presidential electors were counted, it was found that George 
Washington was chosen first President of the United States by a unan¬ 
imous vote. John Adams, having received the second votes of thirty- 
four out of sixty-nine electors, was duly elected Vice-President.] 

QUESTIONS. 

When did local or “town ” government begin in America? (66, 67). 
State government? (268). Government by the states in union? (274). 

What then was the order of growth, from local governments up¬ 
ward ; or the opposite, from a central government downward ? 

Study of the Constitution. 

Who established the Constitution (see Preamble)? Voting in what 
manner? (359). 

Where did legislative powers not granted to Congress (Art. I., Sec. I.) 
remain ? 

*How are representatives chosen, and for how long? (Art. I., Sec. 
II.; 1.) 

How are vacancies filled? (Art. I., Sec. II.; 4.) 

Who presides over the House of Representatives ? (Art. I., Sec. II.; 
5.) 

f How are senators elected, and for how long? (Art. I., Sec. III.; 1.) 

How are vacancies filled? (Art. I., Sec. III.; 2.) 

Who presides over the Senate? (Art. I., Sec. III.; 4.) 

How often and when does Congress assemble? (Art. I., Sec. IV.; 2.) 

Where must revenue bills originate? (Art. I., Sec. VII.; 1.) 

How much legislative power does the President have? (Art.I., Sec. 
VII.; 2.) 

Study carefully Article I., Section VIII., for the powers of Congress. 

Study carefully Article I., Section IX., for prohibitions upon Con¬ 
gress. 

* How many Representatives has California? Who is the Representative 
from your district? 

t Who are the Senators from California? 



188 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


What time was guaranteed to the foreign slave trade? (Art. I., Sec. 
IX.; 1.) 

Do you find the word “slave” anywhere mentioned? 

Study carefully Article I., Section X., for prohibitions upon states. 
What must the United States do for every state? (Art. IV., Sec. 
IV.; 1.) 

Who is our chief executive officer? What is his term? (Art. II., 
Sec. I.; 1.) 

* What was the manner first provided for electing a President and 
Vice-President? (Art. II., Sec. I.; 3.) 

Who has power to declare war? (Art. I., Sec. VIII.; 11.) 

Who is commander-in-chief of the army and navy? (Art. II., Sec. 

II.; 1.) 

Who has power to make treaties? (Art. II., Sec. II.; 2.) 

What is the method of appointing officers? (Art. II., Sec. II.; 2.) 
What is said about power of removal or cause for removal? (Art. 

II. , Sec. IV.) 

How are United States judgeships filled? (Art. II., Sec. II.; 2.) For 
what term? (Art. III., Sec. I.) 

What cases come under the judicial power of the United States? 
(Art. III., Sec. II.; 1.) 

What constitutes treason against the United States? (Art. III., Sec. 

III. ; 1.) 

How nfay a person fleeing from justice in one state be recovered 
from another state? (Art. IV., Sec. II.; 2.) 

What is the supreme law r of our land? (Art. VI.; 2.) 

How may the Constitution be amended? (Art. V.) 


What were the great defects of the Articles of Confederation? 
(347.) Show that the Constitution corrected these defects. 

Consider what the word nation means and then give as many reasons 
as you can find for saying that the people of the United States were a 
nation in 1787. 

What is the difference between a league of states and a national 
government? 

Give reasons showing that the Constitution was suitable for a na¬ 
tional government. 


* How many electoral votes has California? 





THE BEGINNING OF NA TIONAL LIFE. 










































































































































































































































































190 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XVIII. 

1789-1797. 

The United States Government Established. 

For Explanation.—Quorum; coxswain; sound; ordeal; scrutiny; 
levied; defalcation; per diem; mileage; national securities; assump¬ 
tion; chamberlains; punctilious; tinged; abdicated; patrician; cant; 
envoy; refugee; partisan; calumny; coinage; turnpikes; epidemics. 

George Washington, Virginia , President. ) ^ 

John Adams, Massachusetts, Vice-President. ) 1 


1789-93. 

Thomas Jefferson—State. 

Alexander Hamilton—Treasury. 

Henry Knox—War. 

Edmund Randolph—Attorney-General. 


1793-7. 

Thomas Jefferson, 'j 
Edmund Randolph, >State. 

Timothy Pickering, ) 

Alexander Hamilton, 1 
Oliver Wolcott, {Treasury. 

Henry Knox, \ 

Timothy Pickering, IWar. 

James McHenry, ) 

Edmund Randolph, 'j 

William Bradford, >Attorney-General. 

Charles Lee, ) 


1. Work of the First Congress. 

362. Inauguration of Washington.—The fourth of March, 
1789, had been appointed for the first Congress under the 
Constitution, to assemble at New York, the temporary cap¬ 
ital of the United States. No quorum, however, of either 
Senate or House of Representatives was present until April 
first. George Washington, President elect, arrived on April 
twenty-third. A decorated barge, with tw r elve rowers and a 
thirteenth man for coxswain, brought him from the Jersey 
shore. Vessels in the harbor, flying the flags of all nations, 
saluted with thirteen guns. Governor Clinton of New York, 
attended by civil and military worthies, escorted the honored 
hero over a carpeted path from the water-steps to a carriage 
of state, and citizens arm-in-arm fell in behind the military 
procession, while the madly ringing bells strove to express 
the nation’s joy. One week later, on the balcony of Fed- 




THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 191 


eral Hall, both houses of Congress being assembled within, 
Washington solemnly repeated the words of the oath of 
office, and with closed eyes whispered the words, “ so help 
me, God!” kissing the Bible as he concluded. Then rang 
out the joyous cry of the people: “Long live George Wash¬ 
ington, President of the United States!” and the artillery 
thundered the first of presidential salutes. After the inau¬ 
gural address, modest, calm, and hopeful, appealing to the 
Almighty for help and guidance, there were religious serv¬ 
ices in a neighboring chapel. The ceremonies of the day 
ended with brilliant fireworks. 

363. Congress had weighty work before it. Laws that 
should put a great government into operation were to be 
made. The first Congress was composed of sound, experi¬ 
enced men, with enough of the opponents of the government 
among them to make every measure pass the ordeal of close 
scrutiny and sharp debate. 

[In those days the people could not keep posted on congressional dis¬ 
cussions, for reports of debates were not published. The Senate, en¬ 
deavoring to assume an imposing station, sat with closed doors, that 
no intruder might break in upon its dignified counsels. Vice-President 
Adams, in the chair, would sternly rebuke a whisper, if any member 
were speaking on the floor. The House of Representatives was less 
punctilious, and visitors were allowed in the gallery. Madison, whom 
Patrick Henry and the Anti-Federalists of the Virginia Legislature 
had defeated for the Senate, had been elected a Representative by the 
people of his district. He was on intimate terms with the President, 
and was soon recognized as a leader in the House.] 

364. Revenue.—The national treasury was empty. To 
provide a revenue for government expenses was the first 
care. Soon after the House of Representatives organized, 
Madison moved a resolution that certain duties ought to be 
levied upon imports, and the first of American tariff debates 
followed. Madison’s plan was adopted in substance. Mod¬ 
erate duties were levied upon articles of general importa¬ 
tion, the purpose being to raise a revenue, but in the choice 
of articles that should pay the duties, there was also a clear 
purpose to foster home productions and manufactures. Cus- 


192 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


tom Houses and the regular machinery for the collection of 
duties, were provided. Duties were payable only in gold or 
silver coin. 

365. [Revenue Tariff.—Tariffs are sometimes classified as Revenue 
tariffs and Protective tariffs. If the object of a government in estab¬ 
lishing a tariff' is simply to raise a revenue, the duties would be laid 
upon articles of general use which are not produced within the country. 
The tax is then widely distributed, and does not in any way affect the 
manufactures of the country. For instance, the United States, desiring 
simply a tariff for revenue, might lay a duty upon tea and coffee, which 
are used by almost every one, and are not produced in the United 
States.] 

366. [Protective Tariff.—The idea of a Protective tariff is quite dif¬ 
ferent. If a government desires a Protective tariff, it will place duties 
upon articles which are produced within the country, but which can be 
imported for a less price. For instance, iron is produced both in the 
United States and in Great Britain, and for some reason—as better 
methods in the reduction of iron ore, lower wages paid to workmen— 
British iron can be sold in the United States cheaper than domestic 
iron. Without a tariff, therefore, the manufacture of iron cannot be 
carried on in the United States. If, however, our government charges 
a duty on imported iron, our manufacturers can get higher prices, and 
are protected against foreign competition. The government, meantime, 
gets a revenue from the tariff, provided the importation of iron con¬ 
tinues under the tariff] 

367. The Executive Departments. — Congress estab¬ 
lished three departments—a department of Foreign Affairs, 
of War, and of the Treasury—the man in charge of each 
to be called a Secretary, and to be appointed by the Presi¬ 
dent. All together were to act as his advisers. Later was 
created the office of Attorney-General, or legal adviser of 
the President. 

[Washington set an example of appointing prominent men to these 
positions. “I want men,” he used to say, “already of marked eminence 
before the country, not only as the more serviceable, but because the 
public will more readily trust them.” In consulting with his advisers, 
Washington generally put questions, and demanded opinions in writing, 
but after a few years adopted the practice of calling them together for 
oral consultation. In this way the chiefs of departments came to be 
called the Cabinet.] 

[The Department of Foreign Affairs soon received the name of the 
Department of State. In 1798 the affairs of the War Department were 
divided, and the Navy Department was created. Post Offices were man¬ 
aged by the Treasury Department until 1829, when the Postmaster- Gen- 






































































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THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED . 193 

eral was added to the Cabinet. The Department of the Interior, which 
manages public lands, patents, pensions, the census, etc., was organized 
in 1849.] 

[The Treasury Department was organized with a complicated system 
of inspection. An Auditor examines public accounts, a Controller re¬ 
views them, a Treasurer under heavy bonds is the actual guardian and 
disburser of the funds, and a Register keeps a record of receipts and 
payments. The special duty of the Secretary of the Treasury is to pre¬ 
pare plans for national finance. He supervises the whole department, 
but can appoint only his own assistants. The United States Treasury 
has never been dishonored by any serious defalcation.] 

368. United States Courts. —Other important legislation 
was passed at the first session of Congress, which later years 
have not changed, hnt only extended. The United States 
Supreme Court was organized with a Chief Justice and five 
(now eight) Associate Justices appointed for life. For sub¬ 
ordinate courts the country was divided into districts, in 
each of which was organized a District Court. These judi¬ 
cial districts were grouped into circuits, in which provision 
was made for Circuit Courts. Congress gave the courts the 
necessary officers of clerks, marshals, and attorneys, but 
built no jails. 

369. [John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. Born in New York in 
1745, of Huguenot descent, a graduate of Columbia College and a law¬ 
yer, he was a stanch patriot and one of our ablest statesmen. He was 
a prominent member of the Continental Congress, Minister to Spain in 
1779, whence he joined Adams and Franklin at Paris (295). In 1795 he 
resigned the office of Chief Justice to become Governor of New York.] 

370. Territories. —Provision was made for the organiza¬ 
tion of territorial governments, under the authority of the 
United States, in all the land which had been ceded to the 
United States (349). Provision was also made for territo¬ 
ries to enter the Union as states on equal terms as soon as 
sufficient population should be gained. Several states on 
ratifying the Constitution had demanded amendments. 
These made a large number when brought together. Con¬ 
gress cut them down to ten, which were adopted and added 

370. Read Articles I-X., Amendments to the Constitution of the United 
States. 

13-H 



194 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


to the Constitution. They were regarded as additional 
safeguards to the rights of the people. 

371. [The salaries fixed for the various officers were low as com¬ 
pared with present figures. Washington had desired that only his offi¬ 
cial expenses should be paid, but Congress liberally gave him $25,000 a 
year. The yearly salary of the Vice-President was $5,000, of the Chief 
Justice $4,000, while the pay of members of Congress was fixed at $6 per 
diem with mileage according to distances. The sum of $216,000 was 
sufficient for the first year’s expenses, including the army and the pen¬ 
sion list. Since the second administration of President Grant the Pres¬ 
ident has received $50,000. The present salary of the Vice-President is 
$8,000, of the Chief Justice $10,500, of members of Congress $5,000 with 
mileage.] 

372. The national debt was not touched at the first ses¬ 
sion of Congress, hut it formed an important part of the 
work the second year, 1790. Secretary Hamilton had been 
carefully maturing his plans and his financial report was 
the political sensation of the early government. It startled 
Congress and the country by the amount of indebtedness 
it revealed (nearly $12,000,000 of foreign debt, over $42,- 
000,000 due at home, and $25,000,000 of state debt incurred 
in the common cause of war), and by the bold determina¬ 
tion to pay every dollar of the huge amount. 

[Hardly any one had expected that the government would keep its 
promises in full, and the mere publication of Hamilton’s report made 
the price of national securities rise from fifteen cents to fifty cents on the 
dollar. New York capitalists rushed their agents through the country 
to buy up all the bills they could find, before the news of this proposed 
payment could reach their holders. This made Congressmen oppose 
payment in full, for it was argued that only speculators would be bene¬ 
fited, and not the patriots who had given their services and their means 
to the country. 

373. The assumption of the state debts was fiercely op¬ 
posed, as tending to centralize power in the United States 
government. A compromise settled the matter. The state 
of Virginia was opposed to assumption, but was desirous of 
getting the national capital. It had been generally agreed 
to build a new city for the capital, and the competition 

373. In this compromise, what parties made concessions, and what con¬ 
cessions did each make? 



THE UNITED ST A TES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 195 

for the site lay between the Delaware, Susquehanna, and 
Potomac Rivers. By the compromise, state debts to the 
amount of $21,500,000 were assumed by the United States, 
and our capital city was located on the Potomac. 

374. [The National Capital.—The government went from New York 
to Philadelphia in 1791. The site of the national capital was selected 
by the first President in the last year of his administration, and the 
country unanimously named it Washington. Work was commenced 
on government buildings, which were occupied in 1800, when President 
Adams congratulated Congress on “ a residence not to be changed.”] 

2. The President and the Country. 

375. Presidential Etiquette and Entertainments. —In 

New York and Philadelphia, Washington set to future pres¬ 
idents an example of elegant receptions, and rich banquets 
to limited and select companies. John Adams would have 
had numerous chamberlains and masters of ceremonies. 
While discarding these attendants of royalty, Washington 
was, however, “ punctilious in the smallest matters of eti¬ 
quette.” Himself a true gentleman, and “ as genuine a 
man as ever came from his Maker’s hand,” carefulness in 
etiquette was to him a matter of honor and gentlemanly 
breeding. With wealth of his own, he had no wish to make 
money out of his office, and was accustomed to spend his 
whole salary in the discharge of his official duties. His 
wife, in her youth a Virginia belle, adorned her position as 
a leader of society, and her fame is made lasting in the 
title of “ Lady Washington,” accorded to her by common 
consent. Washington spent the intervals between the ses¬ 
sions of Congress in tours through the states, partly as a 
rest from office, but mainly to acquaint himself with the 
condition of his fellow citizens. 

376. The prosperity of the country began with the estab¬ 
lishment of the national government. The fierce debates 
that had rent the people over the adoption of the Constitu¬ 
tion were stilled. Heaven gave fruitful seasons. American 
grain was in demand in Canada and in Europe. Commerce 


196 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and manufactures were growing, and everything promised 
better times to come. The President’s message to Congress 
at the beginning of the second session (January 4th, 1790), 
spoke of the growing importance of the United States as a 
nation. Convinced of their helpless condition outside of 
the Union, the two stubborn sisters at last joined hands, 
North Carolina ratifying the Constitution in November, 
1789; but little Rhode Island holding out till the following 
year. 

[The United States had cut off political connection with England, 
but remained English in nearly everything else—in language, law, reli¬ 
gion, traditions, and habits of thought. The wealthy wore powdered 
wigs and frilled shirt bosoms, following English fashions of the eight¬ 
eenth century. Jefferson, who from the study of French writers, and a 
long residence in France (412), had become strongly tinged with French 
ideas, recommended to Congress the adoption of the French decimal 
system in money, weights, and measures. This wise advice was fol¬ 
lowed only in the decimal system for United States money. Even in 
this it took people a long time to change their prices and accounts 
from pounds, shillings, and pence, previously used, to dollars and cents, 
recently invented. The use of the French metric standards was made 
legal in the United States in 1866. They are now almost exclusively 
used by scientists of every nation.] 

377. [Death of Franklin.—After returning from France, Franklin 
served as Governor of Pennsylvania, where his wise guidance rescued 
the state from civil dissensions. His death occurred April 17th, 1790, at 
the age of eighty-four. His last public work was to head a petition to 
Congress from a society of Pennsylvania for the abolition of slavery. 
“ Equal liberty,” the petition said, “ was originally the portion and is 
still the birthright of all men.” Of all the illustrious men of American 
Independence, he alone stands out as a leader in advance of his age; 
in him was a glorious prophecy of what American character might 
become. America regretted her loss, and France mourned for him as 
for a favorite son.] 

378. Vermont and Kentucky were admitted to the Union 
in 1790. The Constitution of Vermont prohibited slavery; 
that of Kentucky tolerated it. In this way Congress began 
a “ miserable policy of halving the national territory be¬ 
tween freedom and slavery.” 

379. [Slavery, chiefly of African races, had been introduced into 
the English colonies of America at an early date (135). Descended 
from the customs of Roman conquerors and approved by the precepts 


THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 197 


of Jewish law, the right of ownership in human beings was recognized 
in the laws of Christian nations until the fuller light of the Christianity 
of the nineteenth century condemned it. In the American colonies the 
growth or the decay of slavery was determined not by the ideas of the 
people, but by the conditions of their life. Only the industry of free 
laborers could bring a return from the meager soil of New England 
farms; only skilled workmen could manage the shops in the North and 
the center; but in the river bottoms of the South, with the toil that 
could be wrung from the lazy and ignorant slave, tobacco, rice, and 
indigo gave the planter an easy income. The African could not endure 
New England winters, but in the heat of the South he lived in health. 
Only negro slavery increased. White men, condemned to servitude, 
found, in the new country, means to escape, and the Indian’s wild spirit 
fretted itself to death when put in fetters. During the latter part of the 
colonial period there was a growing spirit in condemnation of the slave 
trade, but the English government would not allow its suppression. In 
his first draft of the Declaration of Independence (275), Jefferson de¬ 
nounced the slave trade as “ piratical warfare against human nature 
itself,” but his words offended some and were stricken out; again, in 
Congress, in 1784, he sought to prohibit slavery in all the western lands 
then being ceded to the United States (349), but failed by a single vote. 
Massachusetts was the only one of the original states to enter the 
Union with a constitution prohibiting slavery. The United States pro¬ 
hibited the importation of slaves after January 1st, 1808. There was 
talk of general emancipation during the early years of our government, 
but slaves had become so numerous in the southern states, and their 
presence had so worked itself into southern society, that the problem 
of emancipation was perplexing.] 

3. The Indians. 

380. United States Indian Policy.—Americans failed 
always to make permanent friendships with the Indian 
tribes, for the life of one race meant the death of the other. 
Settlers constantly pressing westward fought back the In¬ 
dians as they did the wild beasts, and the government had 
to protect the settlers when they were in danger. 

[The power of the Iroquois was crushed in 1778 (314), but north of 
the Ohio there were other tribes, who, crossing the river, made the low¬ 
land of Kentucky “ dark and bloody ground.” In 1790 the Indians of 
the Northwest numbered from 20,000 to 30,000. The Wabash was the 
chief tribe. In the Southwest were the Chickasaws, Choctaws, Chero- 
kees, and Creeks, numbering about 70,000.] 

381. War was made on the northwest Indians to defend 
the settlers who had entered Ohio. In 1790 General Har- 
mar was defeated near the site of Fort Wayne. In 1791 


198 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


General St. Clair led United States troops against the In¬ 
dians, and he, too, was led into ambush and badly defeated 
near the head of the Wabash. In 1794 General Anthony 
Wayne (301) was more successful, destroying the force of 
the Indians in a battle near the site of Toledo and bringing 
them to a treaty by which they surrendered the territory 
of the present state of Ohio. Treaties were concluded with 
the southwestern tribes by peaceful means. 

4. Excise and the Whisky Insurrection. 

382. Tax on Liquors. —The payment of the national debt 
required additional United States taxes, and an excise was 
placed on distilled liquors. This tax belongs to the class 
of taxes called indirect, because not borne entirely by the 
persons who pay it, and being supposed to discourage the 
use of liquors by raising their price, it recommends itself to 
great numbers of people. To the first Congress the excise 
seemed a tax the least liable to be opposed. 

383. The Tax Resisted. —In the mountain counties of 
North Carolina, Virginia, and Pennsylvania the people were 
in the habit of turning their surplus grain crops into whisky, 
which they could haul to market much more easily than 
the grain. These people, many of them of foreign birth, 
fought off the tax collectors, and in Pennsylvania even 
balked the state militia brought out against them. Fear¬ 
ing the effect of a lawless example, President Washington 
called out an army of 15,000 men from the militia of the 
neighboring states and sent it into western Pennsylvania. 
Order was restored on the appearance of the army. The 
disturbance is known as the Whisky Insurrection. 

5. United States Bank. 

384. The national debt was paid off in the following 
manner: All the old bills were collected, the holders receiv- 

382. Explain how it is that the tax described in this paragraph is not 
borne by the people who pay it to the government. 



THE UNITED ST A TES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 199 

ing in exchange new paper, or bonds of the United States, 
bearing interest at fixed rates and payable after a period 
of years. For the regular payment of the interest and the 
gradual reduction of the principal, certain revenues, or 
funds, were set aside. A debt provided for in this way is 
said to be funded. 

385. A United States Bank was an important feature 
of Hamilton’s financial scheme. A bill for incorporation 
brought out strong opposition from Congressmen who be¬ 
lieved that such an institution would enable the United 
States government to swallow up the state governments. 
They pronounced the bank “ unconstitutional,” arguing that 
the constitution nowhere gave the United States power to 
establish a bank. In reply, Hamilton brought forward his 
doctrine of “ implied powers,” arguing that as the bank 
would be a useful means of collecting taxes and of borrow¬ 
ing money, it was authorized by the clause of the constitu¬ 
tion empowering Congress “ to make all laws which shall 
be necessary for carrying into execution ” the powers that 
were expressly granted. (See Constitution, I: VIII: 18.) 
The bill became a law in 1791, and a bank was chartered 
for twenty years. The view which pronounced the bank un¬ 
constitutional is frequently called “ a strict construction ” 
of the constitution; Hamilton’s view is called “ a loose con¬ 
struction.” 

[Hamilton took for his model the Bank of England, an institution 
that has been in operation for a long time, and has been a source of 
strength to the English government. A large part of its capital stock 
is composed of bonds representing the English national debt. Bank of 
England notes circulate as money, and every one holding them is inter¬ 
ested in keeping up the government, for with the downfall of the gov¬ 
ernment the bank notes Would become worthless. A similar bank, 
called the Bank of North America, planned and managed by the finan¬ 
cier of the Revolution, Robert Morris, had done good service for Amer¬ 
icans toward the close of the war.] 

385. Explain the difference between “ implied” and “ expressed” poivers. 
Give an illustration of each. 



200 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

6. Foreign Affairs and Political Parties. 

386. The old-time monarchy of France came to an end 
in 1789, in what is called the French Revolution. The old 
order of things in society, government, and religion was 
swept away; a republic was set up, but did not long con¬ 
tinue. A new monarch, in the person of Napoleon Bona¬ 
parte, supported by the army, gradually supplanted the 
republic. 

387. [Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica, in 1769. His genius 
was for war, and in the affairs of the Devolution he found opportu¬ 
nity for service. The monarchies of Europe conspired to suppress de¬ 
mocracy in France. Bonaparte, having extended the military sway of 
France over Italy; having humbled Austria, and overrun Syria and 
Egypt, was,.in 1802, proclaimed consul for life, and two years later he 
gained his true title, being crowned by the Pope as Napoleon I., Em¬ 
peror of the French. For ten years Napoleon continued to dazzle the 
world by his military achievements, fighting the combined armies of 
northern Europe. Defeat came in 1814, Napoleon abdicated his power, 
and retired to rule the island of Elba; but not to rest from ambition. 
In February, 1815, invited by a conspiracy of his old supporters, Napo¬ 
leon escaped to France, resumed his former position, gathered another 
grand army, but met final defeat in the great battle of Waterloo (June 
18th, 1815). The rest of his life he lived a prisoner of Great Britain, on 
the little island of St. Helena. He died in 1821.] 

388. The growth of political parties in the United States 
was greatly influenced by affairs in Europe. The division 
between Federalists and Anti-Federalists passed away at the 
successful inauguration of the government. Then began a 
new division. Washington tried always to he of no party— 
to be for the nation as a whole, and the country so trusted 
him that few men could ever be found to say that they 
were against him. But the opinions of Washington in¬ 
clined toward those of Hamilton, and Hamilton was the 
natural party leader of the Federalists. The opponents of 
the Hamilton Federalists began in 1792 to call themselves 
Republicans. Hamilton admired the British form of gov¬ 
ernment as the best in the world, and his enemies accused 

387. Where is Elba ? St. Helena ? 



THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 201 

him of aiming at a monarchy in America. This was prob¬ 
ably not true, but Hamilton and his fellows did desire a 
sort of patrician or ruling class, composed of “ the men of 
sense and property, a little above the multitude.” Jeffer¬ 
son was the chief opponent of the political ideas of Hamil¬ 
ton, and became the leader of the Republicans. 

389. The new party of Republicans, headed by Jeffer¬ 
son, had as yet little strength among the people, and in 1792 
Washington was unanimously reelected; and Adams, who 
was a pronounced Federalist of aristocratic notions, again 
received the Vice-Presidency by a handsome majority over 
George Clinton of New York, the candidate of the Repub¬ 
licans. From this time on, however, the strength of the Re¬ 
publicans grew steadily. They received the remnants of 
the old Anti-Federalists, the men who still feared that the 
Union would crush the states. They received, also, the 
support of a considerable number of Americans who sym¬ 
pathized strongly with the democratic ideas of the French 
revolution. 

[Thus this growing party, the name changing from Republicans to 
Democratic-Republicans, and finally dropping the last part altogether, 
represented, in Jefferson’s time, on one side the old-time opposition to 
American union, and on the other the hope of the future for the politi¬ 
cal equality of men. The Federalists, haying established union and 
nationality above state distinctions, remained the defenders of the social 
order of the past.] 

390. [Genet’s Mission.—The ideas of the French revolutionists were 
dangerous to the ruling classes of England, and there was open war be¬ 
tween the two countries most of the time till 1815. The French repub¬ 
lic claimed aid from the United States in return for the help which the 
French monarchy had given in the war for independence. In 1793 
the French Government sent Genet as minister to the United States. 
Many in the country were disposed to help the French against En¬ 
gland. Although President Washington had proclaimed the neutrality 
of the United States in the war between France and England, Genet, 
immediately on his arrival in America, began to organize “ Democratic 
societies” in sympathy with French revolutionists, and to commission 
privateers to prey on English commerce. His insolent operations were 
soon checked by firm measures on the part of Washington, and after a 
year Genet was recalled at the President’s request. Enthusiasm for 
France, kindled by Genet’s visit, lived, after his departure, in “ Demo- 


202 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


cratic societies” organized by him in the leading cities. The spirit of 
these societies to disregard law brought upon them the censure of Presi¬ 
dent Washington, and as societies they soon disappeared.] 

391. Jay’s Treaty.—England had reluctantly acknowl¬ 
edged the independence of the United States, and continued 
willfully to injure the young republic. She had delayed to 
surrender Detroit and other forts in the Northwest, and her 
war ships seized American vessels trading with France. 
Chief Justice Jay went to England as a special envoy, and, 
in 1795, brought home a treaty providing for the surrender 
of the forts, for payment of damages to American mer-^ 
chants, but allowing damages to England for certain debts 
unpaid on account of the Revolution, and leaving the north¬ 
ern boundary poorly defined, with privileges on the ocean 
in favor of England. The treaty was ratified, although very 
unpopular. It postponed serious difficulties with England 
for twelve years. 

7. Immigration and Western Development. 

392. The young republic of the United States attracted 
attention in all parts of Europe. The general war in Eu¬ 
rope made a demand for American produce, and offered 
rich profits to American commerce. The flag of the United 
States became well known in foreign harbors. In the 
United States there was a constantly growing demand for 
labor, and an unmeasured extent of new land in the West. 
These advantages, combined with a government founded 
on freedom and equal rights, attracted multitudes from 
Europe for whom, in their native land, there was no hope 
of advance and hardly the chance of a comfortable life. 
The United States welcomed them as workers, and allowed 
them to become citizens after a brief residence. 

393. Western Development.—During Washington’s sec¬ 
ond administration an immigration began, so vast that “ it 
seemed to our citizens as if all Europe were flowing in upon 
them.” There were refugees from France, laborers from 


THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 208 

England, Ireland, and Germany. This influx of popula¬ 
tion entered by the great harbors of Boston, New York, and 
Philadelphia, and thence joined in a movement to the west¬ 
ward, which began to build new states in the northwest, Ohio 
being the first. 

394. [Census.—The first United States census, taken in 1790, showed 
a total population of 3,929,214. Of this number negro slaves made be¬ 
tween one fifth and one sixth.] 

8. Washington Retires. 

395. Washington longed for release from public duties, 
and declined to be a candidate for a third term. In 1796 
he published his Farewell Address to the American People, 
in the preparation of which he had labored long and care¬ 
fully. ‘‘In words of solemn benediction, and free from all 
cant or partisanship,” the foremost of Americans expressed 
the truths taught him by a life-long experience in founding 
American nationality. He warned the people against en¬ 
tangling alliances with foreign nations; against the danger 
of geographical parties, and the spirit of faction and dis¬ 
regard of authority, and urged them to make religion, 
morality, and general education the pillars of the govern¬ 
ment. On relief from office, Washington spent his few re¬ 
maining years in quiet life on his Mount Vernon plantation. 

396. The presidential election in 1796 brought out a 
partisan contest in full strength. Proceeding from the 
quarrels of leaders like Hamilton and Jefferson, there had 
grown up, especially in Philadelphia, a partisan press, whose 
attacks upon men of opposing views have never since been 
exceeded in bitterness and calumny by American news¬ 
papers. The leaders themselves in those days joined in 
controversies, which sometimes grew into duels, a fashion 
of settling quarrels introduced into America from France. 
Vice-President John Adams was recognized as the Federal¬ 
ist candidate for the first place, while Jefferson represented 

395. What is meant by “ geographical parties?” 



204 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


the Republicans. Of the 138 electoral votes, Adams re* 
ceived 71, Jefferson stood next with 68. This gave the 
country a President of one party, and for Vice-President, 
the leader of the Opposition. 

397. The United States at the end of Washington’s ad¬ 
ministration had prosperity but not wealth. There was an 
immense debt, and very little money to support either an 
army or a navy. Fortunate it was for the young nation that 
its early government had the firmness of Washington, whom 
the people loved and trusted, the force and energy of Hamih 
ton, who created financial stability, and the wisdom and ex¬ 
perience of Congressmen like Madison, who had a regard 
for the whole people. The United States mint, located at 
Philadelphia, began to give the country a uniform coinage, 
facilitating home trade. The government issued patents 
protecting inventors and helping manufactures. Good turn¬ 
pikes were built between the principal cities, making tra vel 
easier and quicker. New England began canals, which 
made freighting cheaper. Colleges increased in number, 
and began to rise to higher scholarship. Noah Webster 
published “ The American Spelling Book” and other simple 
text-hooks, laying the foundation for American common 
school education. The health of the people was generally 
good, but at times epidemics, like yellow fever at Phila¬ 
delphia in 1793, showed how little the physicians of that 
time knew about diseases, and challenged them to improve 
their methods of treatment. 

398. The South grew more rapidly in wealth, for a great 
staple had been added to her products. Cotton had been 
raised in the southern colonies, but it was not a profitable 
crop until Eli Whitney, in 1793, invented the cotton gin, a 
machine for cleaning out seed from the cotton. By hand 
a slave could clean only one or two pounds of cotton a day, 
but with the machine he could clean a thousand. This in- 


THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. 205 


vention had a great and far-reaching effect upon the south¬ 
ern people. By vastly increasing the profits of slave labor 
it greatly strengthened the power of the slavery system. 
Manufactures, for which slave labor is unsuited, did not 
flourish, and the South came to live almost entirely by ex¬ 
porting raw products. 

399. [Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts and graduated from 
Yale College. He went to Savannah to study law, and while there his 
attention was directed to cotton cleaning. He received but very little 
from the invention of the cotton gin, but afterwards he became rich by 
manufacturing improved firearms for the government. (See portrait, 

p. 268.)] 

Summary of Washington’s Administration. 


Make a summary of this chapter by filling in notes after the fol¬ 
lowing topics: 

f 1. National Revenue. 

2. Tariff. I '• 
l 2. Protective. 

3. Executive Departments. 

First Congress.^4. Treasury. 

1 5. Courts. 

6. Territories. 

7. Amendments. 

Funding the debt. 

f 1. Prosperity. 

The Country.^ 2. New ideas. 

L3. New states. 
r 1. Tribes and numbers. 


u 


The Indians. 


2. Wars. 


Excise. 


1 . 

o 


United States Bank. 


Foreign Affairs and Home Politics. 


I L 


fl. 


I 2 

7 

U 3 : 


Immigration and Growth 


fl. 

u 


Washington’s farewell advice. 
Progress under the administration. 


Reasons for the tax. 
Resistance. 

Arguments. { j£ iMt 
Model and purpose. 
Parties. 

Leaders. 

French influence. 

Treaty with England. 
Reasons for immigration. 
Movement of population. 









206 


HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XIX. 

1797-1801. 

Government by the Federalists. 

For Explanation. — Burly; stickler; stanch; naturalization law; 
aliens; sedition; concerted. 


John Adams, Massachusetts, President. 
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, Vice-President. 


Timothy Pickering, ) 
John Marshall, j 
Oliver Wolcott, 1 
Samuel Dexter, j 
Benjamin Stoddert, Navy. 


State. 


S' Treasury. 


James McHenry, 'J 
Samuel Dexter, >War. 

Roger Griswold, J 

Charles Lee, ) _ 

Theophilus Papons, f Attorney-Gener*. 


1. The New Administration. 



400. The President and 
the Vice-President of the 

new administration stand 
out in American history 
in strong contrast. Ad¬ 
ams, the Federalist, was 
stout and burly, a stickler 
for forms and ceremonies 
and English notions in 
dress and etiquette, an 
admirer of English aris¬ 
tocratic government, yet 
a true defender of free¬ 
dom and representation 
of the people. Jefferson, 
tall and lank, careless of 
John Adams. dress and social distinc¬ 

tions, a devotee to the new French ideas of equality and 
the “ rights of man,” saluted as the “friend of the people,’’ 
yet lacked the warm nature of a popular leader. 


What new department appears in the Cabinet of this Administration? 







GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS. 


207 


401. [John Adams was born in Massachusetts, in 1735. He gradu¬ 
ated from Harvard College, became a lawyer, and one of the most prom¬ 
inent patriots and early statesmen. After serving in France (295) until 
the treaty of 1783, he went to England, the first representative of the 
United States at the court of Great Britain. He returned to America 
to serve as Vice-President with Washington (361). As President he 
desired-to follow in Washington’s path, and retained the old Cabinet. 
In doing this he made the mistake of trying to fit himself to another 
man’s armor. These men were faithful to Washington, but when he 
was gone they looked to Hamilton for guidance, and not to Adams. 
Toward the end of his term Adams reorganized his Cabinet, but too 
late to make a harmonious administration.] 

2. “Adams and Liberty.” 

402. Troubles with France made Adams’s term an un¬ 
quiet time. The French government, at war with the rest 
of Europe, but secure through the military achievements 
of Napoleon, wanted to make the United States pay tribute 
for peace. One minister was driven out of the country, 
and the capture of American ships by French war ships, 
was unchecked. A special embassy sent by Adams met 
with trickery and double dealing, the only plain assurance 
being that bribes to the men controlling the French gov¬ 
ernment would stop the offenses. The embassadors came 
home disgusted, and the angry President stated to Con¬ 
gress: “ I will never send another minister to France with¬ 
out assurance that he will be received, respected, and 
honored as the representative of a great, free, powerful, 
and independent nation.” 

403. The bold stand of the President brought out the 
enthusiasm of the country. Sympathy for the French rev¬ 
olutionists had long since subsided, and now a baseless 
dread of being forced to serve a foreign power set the coun¬ 
try wild. “Millions for defense, but not one cent for trib¬ 
ute,” became the cry. “ Towns and private societies, grand 
jurors, militia companies, merchants, the Cincinnati” (345), 
sent addresses to the President, approving his conduct. 
The badges of revolutionary patriots came out again, and 


208 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


a man found wearing the French tricolor was in danger of 
rough handling. 

[Two new songs expressing the national sentiment were sung at 
every gathering. One, “ Hail Columbia,” written by Joseph Hopkinson, 
has become a lasting possession; the other, “Adams and Liberty,” by 
Robert Treat Paine, Jr., although of equal poetic merit, passed away 
with the events that gave it life.] 

404. [The Federalist Congress made actual preparation for war, 
establishing the Navy Department, building war frigates, and reorgan¬ 
izing the army with Washington at the head and Hamilton second. 
President Adams, honest and stanch, for once proudly felt himself a 
popular hero. Federalist newspapers grew rich, while the Republican 
papers nearly starved. Carried away by this burst of popularity, the 
Federalist leaders formed a scheme of permanently establishing their 
rule by silencing their opponents and putting free speech under checks. 
In this moment of their pride they ran counter to the spirit of Ameri¬ 
can freedom and their downfall was sudden and forever.] 

3. Downfall of the Federalists. 

405. The Federalist Measures, 1798.—(1) A new natu¬ 
ralization law lengthened the time of residence necessary 
for citizenship from five to fourteen years, and required all 
white aliens to he registered so that they might be watched. 
(2) The alien law gave authority to the President for two 
years to compel any alien whom he thought dangerous to 
the peace of the United States to leave the country. (8) 
The sedition law , also temporary, made it a high misde¬ 
meanor, punishable by heavy fine and imprisonment, for 
any persons unlawfully to combine to oppose any law of 
the United States or to publish anything maliciously tend¬ 
ing to bring the officers of the government into disrepute. 
The purpose of the naturalization law was to counteract 
the influence of foreigners, chiefly French, who generally 
sided with the Republicans. 

[President Adams made no use of the authority given him by the 
alien law, but several persons were prosecuted under the sedition law, 
among them a Congressman from Vermont, who was fined and impris¬ 
oned for four months for publishing a letter accusing the administra¬ 
tion of thirsting for power, turning worthy men out of office, etc.] 


GOVERNMENT BY THE FEDERALISTS. 


209 


406. The Republicans opposed the alien and sedition 
laws with spirit in Congress and with defiance outside. The 
Federalists had designed them as war measures to protect 
the country from the emissaries of France, but the people 
regarded the sedition law as an attack on freedom of speech 
and of the press, and the Republican party grew stronger. 
The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, near the end of 
the year 1798, protested against the alien and sedition laws, 
boldly declaring them unconstitutional and therefore “of 
no force.” These protests are the celebrated “ Resolutions 
of ’98.” They expressed a dangerous doctrine of defiance 
to laws of the United States, a doctrine which came not from 
the people, but from a few party leaders. Many legislatures 
speedily condemned the spirit of the resolutions. 

407. [Resolutions of ’98.— Jefferson concerted these resolutions 
with Madison, and himself wrote the first draft of the Kentucky pro¬ 
test, Madison writing that of Virginia. Jefferson’s first draft, which was 
modified before adoption, declared that whenever the General Govern¬ 
ment should abuse its authority under the Constitution, “ a nullification 
of the act is the rightful remedy; ” any state thus having the right to 
countermand a United States law, provided the state could set up the 
claim that the law was unconstitutional. Jefferson was never after¬ 
wards willing to father this doctrine of “ nullification,” and Madison, 
who thoroughly understood the Constitution, always disapproved it.] 

408. The death of Washington occurred December 14th, 
1799. Europe mourned his loss, and America felt that the 
shaft of death had pierced the heart of the nation, when the 
grave closed over its chieftain, “ first in war, first in peace, 
and first in the hearts of his fellow-citizens.” His noble 
character is summed up in these words, “ the best of all 
great men, and the greatest of all good men.” 

409. The presidential election, in 1800, was a war of 

party leaders. Adams was again a candidate, and again 
did not receive the full Federalist support. The Republi¬ 
can electors .all voted for Jefferson and Burr, who received 
seventy-three votes each, against sixty-five for Adams. Ac- 

14-H 


210 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


cording to the Constitution at that time, it was left for the 
House of Representatives to decide whether Jefferson or 
Burr should have the first place. Hence arose plots and 
schemes, many Federalists thinking that they would rather 
have Burr than Jefferson. The House spent several days 
in balloting, without a choice; but on the thirty-sixth count 
gave the presidency to Jefferson, clearly the people’s choice 
from the beginning. 

410. [Adams had saved the country from a war with France, and 
handed over to his successor a nation in prosperity, with a navy organ¬ 
ized to protect American commerce in distant seas. But so much did 
Adams feel his defeat that he left Washington, now the seat of govern¬ 
ment, early in the morning of March 4th, 1801, that he might not be 
present at the inauguration of his rival. He spent the remainder of his 
life on his farm at Quincy, Massachusetts.] 

QUESTIONS. 

Read carefully Art. II., Sec. I., 3, of the Constitution, and Art. 
XII. of the Amendments. Then answer these questions: 

What was meant in Adams’s time by “the double chance” for the 
Presidency? What change is made by the amendment? What rea¬ 
sons were there for the change? How is the vote taken in the House? 
How many state votes were required to elect Jefferson? 

Summary. 


Summarize this chapter under the following topics: 


Government by the Federalists. 


1. Cause of popularity. 

f 1 - 

2. Acts passed, j 2. 

1 3 . 


.3. Effect of legislation. 



NEW IDEAS AND A NEW PARTY. 


211 


CHAPTER XX. 

1801-1809. 

New Ideas and a New Party. 

For Explanation. — Traversing; installment; Moslem; Barbary 
States; corsairs; blockade. 

To be Pronounced.—Berlin; Mil'an; Trip'o-li (le); Trip-oFi-tans; 
re-div'i-va; FuFton. 


Thomas Jefferson, Virginia , President. 
Aaron Burr, New York , ) _ 

George Clinton, New York,\ 

CABINET. 


James Madison—State. 

Albert Gallatin—Treasury. 

Henry Dearborn—War. 

Levi Lincoln, 
Robert Smith 


Benjamin Stoddert, 'j 
Robert Smith, >Navy, 
J. Crowninshield, ) 

Attorney-General. 


Thomas Jefferson. 



411. Inauguration.— 

The first two Presidents 
went to inauguration in 
carriages, attended by 
formal escorts, through 
the streets of populous 
cities. Through the bush¬ 
es and trees then cover¬ 
ing the site of Washing¬ 
ton, Jefferson is said to 
have ridden, hitching his 
own horse in front of the 
unfinished capitol. His 
inaugural address “ re¬ 
mains a model of its 
kind.” 


[“ Full of hope and confidence, he pictured a rising nation spread 
over a wide and fruitful land, traversing all the seas with the rich pro¬ 
ductions of their industry, engaged in commerce with natrons who feel 



212 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


power and forget right, advancing rapidly to destinies beyond the reach 
of mortal eye.” “ I believe this,” he said, “ to be the strongest govern¬ 
ment on earth. I believe it is the only one where every man, at the 
call of the laws, would fly to the standard of the land, and would meet 
invasions of the public order as his own personal concern.” He desired 
to secure equal justice to all men; peace, commerce, and honest friend¬ 
ship with all nations, the support of state governments, and the preser¬ 
vation of the general government, freedom of speech, of the press, and 
of religion; the encouragement of agriculture and commerce and gen¬ 
eral education. “Peace, and not pride,” was the foundation of his 
system.] 

412. [Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia, in 1743. He had two 
years’ study at William and Mary College (138). He became an emi¬ 
nent lawyer, and rendered public service in the Virginia House of Bur¬ 
gesses before going to Congress (275). He was Minister to France from 
the close of the war for independence until he returned to fill the office 
of Secretary of State in Washington’s Cabinet. He was always an 
earnest student in science and literature.] 

413. [Changes in the Country.—The change from Adams to Jeffer¬ 
son marks the change from eighteenth- to nineteenth-century ways. 
The Republicans made fun of the powdered wigs and stiff, ceremonious 
manners of the Federalists. On the other hand, the Federalists took 
counsel with one another, dreading the rule of mobs. Like many a 
fallen hero, they thought the country would perish with them. They 
sneered when dairymen expressed their admiration of the President by 
sending “ the greatest cheese in America to the greatest man in Amer¬ 
ica;” hut when Jefferson cordially accepted and divided the cheese 
among his intimate friends, then the dignity of Federalism was horri¬ 
fied. The country, however, stood on the verge, not of ruin, hut of won¬ 
derful progress. Public education began to improve. Newspapers 
gave up personal quarrels, and aimed for the higher office of news gath¬ 
erers and public instructors.] 

414. Inventions.—Attempts were made to construct 
mowing machines, for which there was great need in the 
level lands of the West. Successful machines, however, did 
not come into use until after 1835. Pennsylvania anthra¬ 
cite coal was discovered in 1791, but needing a powerful 
draft, it would not burn in the small open stoves in general 
use, and people considered it worthless. After a time, how¬ 
ever, it was put to good service in large furnaces and steam 
engines. The first successful steamboat , the Clermont , was 
constructed in 1807, by Robert Fulton, of Pennsylvania. 


NEW IDEAS AND A NEW PARTY. 


213 




































214 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


415. [Fulton’s Steamboat. —Several men in the United States, be¬ 
fore Fulton, had tried to move boats with paddles revolved by steam 
power, but there was very little interest in the project until the devel¬ 
opment of the West brought the great rivers into the service of trade. 
Fulton went to France, and built a boat in 1804; but his heavy engine 
broke through the bottom and sank into the mud of the Seine. He re¬ 
turned to America and tried again, and this time his steamer, the Cler¬ 
mont , a side-wheeler, made a trip on the Hudson River, from New York 
to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, in thirty-two hours.] 

416. Use of Steamboats. — Within a few years there 
were steamboats on all the western rivers, making travel 
easy, quick, and pleasant, and freighting, up stream or 
down, quick and cheap. New Orleans began to grow as 
the outlet of Mississippi trade. The country around Pitts¬ 
burg furnished the iron for steamboat machinery, and coal 
for fuel. Lumber was plentiful all along the Ohio. The 
first steamboat on the Ohio was built in 1811; the first 
ocean steamer crossed the Atlantic from Savannah, Georgia, 
to England, in 1819. 

[The steam engine is the invention of James Watt, a Scotchman, 
born in 1736. His engines came into use for stationary work about 
1775.] 

417. The purchase of Louisiana was Jefferson’s great 
achievement. Louisiana had been ceded by Spain to 
France. Napoleon (387), at the head of France, and aim¬ 
ing to rule the world, had grand designs of a new French 
empire in America. But wars in Europe taxed the atten¬ 
tion of Napoleon and the resources of France. Jefferson, 
believing in the growth of the country and seeing the dan¬ 
ger of having an ambitious neighbor like France, opened 
propositions for purchase. James Monroe (455) was sent 
as special envoy to France, the President assuring him that 
“on the event of this mission depends the future destiny of 
the Republic.” Napoleon being in need of money, and fear¬ 
ing that England would wrest the country from him, Lou¬ 
isiana was bought, in 1803, for $15,000,000. The barrier 
to American progress was now removed; the great river of 
rivers became the outlet of western commerce. 



NEW IDEAS AND A NEW PARTY. 


215 


[Only a part of the purchase money was paid down. Eleven and 
one fourth millions were to be paid in annual installments after fifteen 
years, with interest at six per cent.] 

418. Lewis and Clarke Expedition, 1804.—The territory 
purchased was an unknown land even to Americans. Jef¬ 
ferson, always interested in perfecting science, selected two 
army officers, Meriwether Lewis and William Clarke, and 
§ent them to ascend the Missouri River to its headwaters. 
Their explorations were extended to the Pacific, giving to 
the public the first definite information about the North¬ 
west, and to our government a fair claim to ownership of 
the Oregon country. (See Territorial Map of 1876.) 

[The explorers set out in 1804 with a party well selected and equipped. 
They worked up the Missouri in small boats for 2,600 miles, then on wild 
horses, which they had caught, they crossed through the mountains to 
the streams flowing into the Columbia, which they followed to the sea. 
On the way they met many an Indian tribe that had never seen a white 
man. Two rivers preserve upon our maps the names of these explor¬ 
ers. The Columbia River had been discovered in 1792 by Robert Gray 
of Salem, Massachusetts, who sailed in the Columbia Rediviva.\ 

419. The navy, organized by Adams for war with France 
(404), now did good service against another foe. The Mos¬ 
lem princes of the Barbary States, from being robbers on 
land, had taken to the ocean and waged piratical warfare 
against Christian nations. Such was the fear of these cor¬ 
sairs that the nations of Europe paid heavy tribute to be 
let alone. Washington had made a treaty with Algiers, 
and the ransom of prisoners had cost the country a million 
dollars. Another million had been paid for a so called 
respect for our country’s flag. But bribes only tempted the 
pirates to further outrages. In 1800 the Dey of Algiers had 
compelled an American man-of-war to carry his dispatches 
to Constantinople, and thus the first American man-of-war 
to enter the Bosporus was seen under a pirate flag. In 
1801 the tribute was stopped. American men-of-war vis¬ 
ited the Mediterranean to fight, not to serve, Algiers, and a 


216 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


few brisk encounters brought the Barbary powers to honor¬ 
able terms in 1805. 

420. [The war was chiefly with Tripoli. One especially brave 
achievement is remembered. A United States frigate, the Philadel¬ 
phia, had run aground in the harbor of Tripoli and been captured by 
the Tripolitans. Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, a few days afterwards, 
with twenty picked men, entered the harbor and burned the prize.] 

421. The Napoleonic wars, which filled all Europe with 
alarm from the beginning of the century until the greai 
battle of Waterloo (1815), cast their shadows over Amer¬ 
ica and made the last years of Jefferson’s administration 
dark with coming trouble. England’s strong navy began 
to blockade the harbors of France in 1806. Napoleon 
answered with his Berlin Decree , which ordered the vessels 
of all nations to keep out of British ports. By the Orders 
in Council of 1807, England ordered American ships to keep 
out of every European port except those of Great Britain 
and Sweden, then her friend. Napoleon retorted with his 
Milan Decree , ordering any American vessel which was 
caught entering a British harbor to be seized and sold. 

[The Berlin and Milan Decrees were named for the places whence 
Napoleon issued them.] 

422. American commerce came near to ruin between 
these two ferocious powers. America hardly knew which 
one to fight, and the President did not approve fighting 
either. England had the best navy in the world, and did 
the most damage to our commerce. Moreover, England 
was in need of sailors, and claimed the right to search 
American vessels, and to take off men, on the ground that 
they were English subjects or runaways from the English 
navy. 

[In 1807 the Leopard , a British war frigate, fired upon the United 
States war frigate Chesapeake , off the Chesapeake Bay, killing three men 
and wounding eighteen. Four men, claimed to be British deserters, 
were taken from the Chesapeake. This outrage was sufficient grounds 
for war. “ This country has never been in such a state of excitement 
since Lexington,” wrote Jefferson. However, he decided not on war 
but on an embargo.] 


NEW IDEAS AND A NEW PARTY. 


217 


423. An embargo forbidding the departure of any ves¬ 
sel for a foreign port was ordered by Congress (December, 
1807), in accordance with the President’s recommendation. 
As England and France were blockading European har¬ 
bors, America thought to bring them to terms by keeping 
her ships and her products at home. 

[This embargo policy was in keeping with the Republican doctrine 
of economical government, and the wish to pay off the national debt as 
fast as possible, avoiding any further expenses of war. In New York 
and the commercial districts of New England distress followed the cut¬ 
ting off of business, and the embargo was evaded and resisted. It failed 
utterly to injure seriously either England or France, but in America, 
especially in New York and New England, it was felt “ like the creep of 
death.”] 

424. A rebellious spirit in New England was created by 
financial distress, and there was talk of withdrawing New 
England, New York, and New Jersey, and forming a new 
republic, possibly uniting with Canada. The proposers of 
this scheme were the out-of-office Federalists, but not the 
great leaders like Adams. 

425. [The opposition to the embargo contrasted with the opposi¬ 
tion to the alien and sedition laws, shows how much personal interest 
has to do in forming political opinions. Republicans, in 1798, protested 
against the sedition laws as an invasion of personal rights, and talked 
of resistance (407). In 1809 Federalists protested against an embargo 
as an invasion of private property, and talked of setting up a new 
republic. In 1809 Massachusetts stood on the Virginia ground of 1798. 
Republicans had fought for state rights and against a strong central 
government. Now Federalists took their place, and stood for state 
rights and against a central government that was called despotic.] 

426. End of the Administration.—In 1809 the embargo 
was replaced by a non-intercourse law, prohibiting trade 
with England and France, but allowing it with the rest of 
the world. England, however, did not cease her interfer¬ 
ence with American shipping, and Jefferson handed over 
to his successor the prospect of an immediate war. Jeffer¬ 
son had no wish for a third term. The Federalists were too 
much broken up to take advantage of his retirement, and 


218 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


the Republicans elected their candidate, James Madison, 
the friend, and, to a considerable extent, the disciple of 
Jefferson. 

[The Federalist nominees in 1804 and 1808 were Charles C. Pinckney 
of South Carolina, and Rufus King of New York. In 1804 they received 
fourteen, and in 1808 forty-seven electoral votes out of 176.] 

427. [Jefferson, who had regained the friendship of John Adams, 
like him, retired to the quiet of his home, Monticello, Virginia; no longer 
active, but still interested in the country, the character of which his 
ideas had done much to form. “ Liberal education, liberal religion, a 
free press, America for Americans, faith in the simple arts of peace, 
in science and material progress, in popular rule, in honesty in gov¬ 
ernment economies; no kings, no caste, room for the oppressed of all 
climes; hostility to monopolies, the divorce of government from banks 
and pet corporations; foreign friendship and intercourse with foreign 
alliance; faith in the indefinite expansion of this union on this con¬ 
tinent,—all this, though others inculcated some of these maxims too, is 
Jeffersonism, and Jeffersonism is modern America.”— Schouler .] 

REVIEW. 

Two parallel threads run through the history of Jefferson’s terms. 
On one lies the growth and improvement of the country. On the other, 
a situation in foreign affairs that brought trouble to Americans. Under 
these lines, make a list of events, with a note explaining each. 

Growth and Improvement. Foreign Affairs. 

1. Barbary States. 

2. European Wars.} 1 ’ Commercial Orders. 
C2. Results to America. 

3. Embargo. . . Plan ‘ 

(2. Results. 


1. Change. 

2. Inventions. 

3. Use of steamboats. 

4. New territory. 

5. Exploration. 


THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 219 


CHAPTER XXL 

1809-1817. 

Young America and the War of 1812. 

For Explanation.—Hotspur; sail; flagship; catastrophe; pennant; 
laconic; tactics; dismantled; hulk; mediator. 


James Madison, Virginia, President. 
George Clinton, New York, 

Elbridge Gerry, Massachusetts, 

CABINET. 


| Vice-President. 


Robert Smith, ) 

James Monroe, J ® tate - 
Albert Gallatin, > 

Geo. W. Campbell, I 
Alexander J. Dallas, l* Treasury. 
Wm. H. Crawford, J 
Paul Hamilton, 1 
William Jones, j ^ av J- 


William Eustis, 

John Armstrong, 
James Monroe, 

Wm. H. Crawford, 
George Graham, ' 
Caesar A. Rodney,^ 
William Pinckney, 
Richard Rush, J 


War. 


Attorney-General. 


428. Madison was the last of the presidents who had 
taken active part in founding the government. The three 
presidents before him were men of strong characters and 
masterful wills. After him come presidents who are able 
to stand first, not so much by their own wills as by consult¬ 
ing the views of others. As the country grows, party organ¬ 
izations strengthen, and the presidents become not so much 
the makers as the representatives of party doctrines. Mad¬ 
ison belongs with the first three presidents in his early 
services, but to the latter class in his methods of adminis¬ 
tration. , 


429. [James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751. After graduat¬ 
ing at Princeton, he became a lawyer. He entered public service as a 
member of the Virginia legislature, served for four years in the Conti¬ 
nental Congress (1780-84), and was again in the legislature. He was 
one of the foremost men in the Constitutional Convention (1787), and 
in the first Congress (1789). After serving in Congress for eight years, 
he was Jefferson’s Secretary of State. He was not a natural orator, and 
one year he lost an election to the Virginia legislature from weakness as 
a speaker, and from refusing to treat voters. Yet he was always a clear 
reasoner, and long practice made him an effective public speaker. With 





220 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


great mental powers there was “ united a pure and spotless virtue which 
no calumny has ever attempted to sully.” (See portrait, p. 184.)] 

• 430. [Indian Outbreak.—In dealing with the Indians it was the 
plan of President Jefferson to purchase their land by fair bargains, and 
carefully to respect the treaties. For several years there had been no 
Indian troubles, but in 1811 there was a fresh outbreak among the Wa¬ 
bash Indians in the Northwest. The Indians felt the loss of the fur 
market caused by the war in Europe, and contact with the frontier 
traders had given them acquaintance with firearms and frontier whisky. 
Tecumseh, a chief, eloquent, brave, and crafty, aided by his brother, a 
pretended prophet, stirred up an insurrection which was bravely and 
skillfully met by William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Terri¬ 
tory (513). With a force made up of settlers and volunteers from Ken¬ 
tucky, Harrison fought a hot battle at the Indian village of Tippecanoe, 
near the present site of Lafayette, Indiana, defeating and scattering 
the Indians. This victory stopped the Indian troubles and gave fame 
to Harrison. The country believed that the Indians had been set on 
by English agents, and this belief increased the hatred for England.] 

431. The War-cloud Darkens.—Madison was for a firm 
attitude toward both England and France, with prepara¬ 
tion for armed defense, but he could not enforce his policy 
in Congress. Dissension ruled among the Republican 
leaders, including the Cabinet. The non-intercourse law 
(426) was given up in 1810. Then Napoleon, deceitfully 
representing that he had repealed his offensive decrees, 
non-intercourse was revived against England alone, who 
instantly became more aggressive than ever. Our country 
was swept rapidly on to a war with England. British 
cruisers watched American shores, trying to capture ships 
bound for France, and occasionally overhauling American 
ships and pressing American seamen into British service. 
Interference with American commerce and the impress¬ 
ment of American seamen led to the war of 1812 (436). 

432. [“ Little Belt ” and “ President.”—In one of these affairs the 
British sloop-of-war Little Belt was riddled with balls by the American 
frigate President. Each vessel claimed that the other tired first.] 

433. The Rising Generation. 1 —The Republicans were 
still the ruling party, but its leaders were new and younger 
men. The country wanted active measures in place of the 


THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 221 


worn out peace policy of Jefferson, and the neutrality which 
no European nation respected. “ War men 55 were the favor¬ 
ites in Congressional elections, and this was the chance for 
young aspirants. The presence of this new element in 
American affairs, the power of men who had grown since 
the Revolution, and the fact that the original thirteen states 
no longer controlled the Union, are shown by the election 
of Henry Clay as Speaker of the House of Representa¬ 
tives, in 1811. 

434. [Henry Clay was a Virginian by birth, the son of a Baptist cler¬ 
gyman, whose death left a widow and seven small children with very 
meager support. A poor boy with no one to depend upon but himself, 
he managed to get a little schooling, and afterwards a knowledge of 
law sufficient for admission to the Virginia bar. He began practice at 
Lexington, Kentucky, rose to fame as a criminal lawyer, and then en¬ 
tered political life in the Kentucky legislature. He was twice elected 
to fill vacancies in the United States Senate before his election as a 
Representative in 1811. On the very day of his appearance in the 
House he was elected Speaker. When this “ tall, slender son of Ken¬ 
tucky, with long brown hair, blue eyes, large mouth, peaked nose, and 
shaven face,” took into his hand the Speaker’s gavel, he began a public 
career of forty years, ending only with death. His power was in his 
eloquence, bold, strong, and flashing with fire, which warmed even the 
cold-hearted and made the timid bold. (See portrait, p. 243.)] 

435. [John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was another of the young 
Hotspurs of the House, as they were called from their zeal for war. 
Calhoun entered the House of Representatives with Clay, was for a 
time his friend and political companion, and for about the same period 
equally conspicuous in public affairs. He was, however, a man of far 
different character. Born in South Carolina, in 1782, grave and hand¬ 
some in appearance, of Irish lineage, a graduate of Yale College, a 
successful lawyer, careful, studious, and tireless, Calhoun also entered 
Congress through the legislature of his state. He had eloquence clear, 
plain, concise, and logical, but seldom impassioned like Clay’s. The 
public career of the two men forms a large part of the history of the 
United States government until 1850. (See portrait, p. 243.)] 

436. War against Great Britain was declared by Con¬ 
gress June 18th, 1812. Considerable preparation had been 
made by the United States. The influence of the western 
states, where there was little confidence in the United States 


222 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


navy, caused the greater preparation to be made for opera¬ 
tions on land, chiefly with a view toward invading Canada. 
The United States had no trained army, not even experi¬ 
enced officers. Armies were raised and put in charge of 
men who were appointed for political reasons, and knew 
nothing of war; and consequently the Americans were 
beaten in nearly every land fight, until the forces were reor¬ 
ganized and drilled under competent officers. The British 
navy, numbering nearly 1,000 sail, some of them the most 
powerful vessels known, sneered at the little United States 
frigates, a dozen in number. Yet our seamen won many a 
brilliant fight, surprising their own countrymen as well as 
the people of England. 

437. [The United States Military Academy was established at West 
Point in 1802, with a small number of cadets, who were trained chiefly 
in artillery and military engineering. In 1812 the work was extended, 
and has since included full instruction in all matters of military science, 
with a liberal education in mathematics, French, and general sciences. 
Each congressional district is entitled to have one cadet at West Point, 
appointed by the Congressman. The District of Columbia and the ter¬ 
ritories have one each, appointed by the Secretary of War, and the 
President appoints ten more at large. The United States allows each 
cadet his rations and $500 a year, against which are charged all his 
expenses for clothes, books, etc. Cadets are admitted between the ages 
of seventeen and twenty-one, upon examinations showing perfect 
soundness of body and proficiency in the English language, arithmetic, 
geography, and United States history. On graduation they receive 
commissions in the United States military service.] 

438. Opposition to the war was very strong in New 
England, where the Federalists had still a great deal of 
strength. Always favoring England rather than France, 
they now condemned the war as useless. This opposition 
grew worse as the war went on; but it brought no return of 
power to the Federalists. Madison came out for reelection 
in 1812, as a war candidate, and was successful. 

[Madison received 128 electoral votes out of 218. The Federalists 
voted for De Witt Clinton of New York, nominated by a part of the 
Republicans as a better war manager than Madison.] 


THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 223 


War of 1812. 

439. On to Canada had been the cry of the war party, and 
the fighting began on the Canada frontier in 1812. Con¬ 
gress had planned an army of 25,000, but for a long time 
there were very few disciplined troops. General Henry 
Dearborn was commander-in-chief. 



Map Questions.—Estimate by the scale the length of the northern 
frontier from Fort Meigs to Plattsburg. Are there any natural bar¬ 
riers to land troops along the line? Where were the natural entrances 
to Canada? Did these become battle-grounds? (See 442.) Why was 
a lake navy extremely valuable to either side? From what states were 
troops likely to be sent to Detroit? To Sackett’s Harbor? To Platts¬ 
burg? Make, from the map, a list of battles, in the order of occur¬ 
rence, by the following Model: 


Date. 

Name and Locality. 

American 

Commander. 
(See Text.) 

Results. 

(See Text.) 






440. Movements in 1812.—General William Hull, Gov¬ 
ernor of Michigan, had 2,000 men at Detroit. He set out 
to capture the British fort at Malden, but became fright¬ 
ened and returned. Then the British commander, General 
Brock, besieged Detroit, and Hull quickly surrendered with 











224 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


about half his force, the other half being absent on detached 
expeditions. Next, a body of regular troops and New York 
militia, under General Van Rensselaer, assembled on the 
Niagara and invaded Canada. On Queenstown Heights 
they fought the British troops under Brock, and gained a 
temporary advantage, Brock being killed. Later the Amer¬ 
icans, now commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield 
Scott, but not reinforced, were driven from their ground 
and compelled to surrender. The American loss was about 
1,000 men. 

441. Movements in 1813.—Our forces were arranged in 
three divisions—the Army of the West (Michigan), Gene¬ 
ral William H. Harrison; the Army of the Center (Western 
New York), General Henry Dearborn; the Army of the East 
(around Lake Champlain), General Wade Hampton. In 
January a part of Harrison’s army, under General Win¬ 
chester, was surprised at Frenchtown (now Monroe), on 
the River Raisin, by Indians and British troops under 
Colonel Henry Proctor. The Americans surrendered, and 
were massacred by the Indians. Harrison built Fort Meigs, 
which Proctor attacked, but failed to capture. Later, Proc¬ 
tor and Tecumseh, the Indian chief, made an attack on Fort 
Stephenson and were repulsed. General Dearborn trans¬ 
ported troops from Sackett’s Harbor and captured York 
(now Toronto), an unimportant place and abandoned in a 
few days. Dearborn next landed his troops near the mouth 
of the Niagara, captured Fort George, and in time gained 
the Niagara frontier, but lost most of it shortly after. In 
Dearborn’s absence a British attack on Sackett’s Harbor 
was beaten off by General Jacob Brown, with troops hastily 
gathered in New York. Dearborn was superseded. 

442. On the lakes in 1813 we made up for our failures on 
land. At Presque Isle (now Erie) an American squadron 
was built, supplied with guns, and placed under command 
of Captain Oliver H. Perry of Rhode Island. In August, 


THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 225 

Perry sailed out to meet the British fleet, and gained a bril¬ 
liant victory September 10th, 1813. Ships were built on 
Lakes Ontario and Champlain, and these lake fleets were of 
constant service throughout the war. 

443. [Perry’s Victory.—“In officers and men th6 fleets were about 
equally matched; there were six British vessels to the American nine, 
but the former carried more guns, and were greatly superior for action 
from a distance. With thirty long guns to Perry’s fifteen, Barclay 
(British commander) had the decided advantage at first, and our flag¬ 
ship, the Lawrence, exposed to the heaviest of the British cannonade, 
became terribly battered, her decks wet with carnage, her guns dis¬ 
mounted. Undismayed by this catastrophe, Perry dropped into a little 
boat, with his broad pennant and banner, and crossed to his next 
largest vessel, the Niagara, the target for fifteen minutes of a furious 
fire while being rowed over. Climbing the Niagara's deck, and hoisting 
once more the emblems of commander, our brave captain now pierced 
the enemy’s line with his new flagship, and, gaining at last the advan¬ 
tage of a close engagement, which nearly three hours had eluded him, 

he won the fight in eight minutes.‘We have met the enemy, and 

they are ours,’ was Perry’s laconic dispatch to Harrison, written in 
pencil on the back of an old letter, with his navy cap for a rest; ‘two 
ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.’ ”— Schouler.] 

444. Battle of the Thames.—Perry’s victory opened the 
way for Harrison’s army to enter Canada. It won a fierce 
battle on the River Thames (October 5th), in which the 
Indians held out to the end, their chief, Tecumseh, being 
among the slain. The British commander, Proctor, escaped 
in a carriage. Harrison captured Malden. 

445. Land movements in 1814 were more skillfully con¬ 
ducted. Failures had taught the need of discipline. The 
government displaced incompetent officers, and reorganized 
the army, the work going on slowly under the direction of 
General Jacob Brown and Colonel Winfield Scott, who 
had to translate a book from French, in order to get any 
satisfactory system of tactics. In July, Brown crossed the 
Niagara with his new army, defeating the British force at 
Chippewa Creek (July 5th). Their numbers being in¬ 
creased, they fought our army, from sunset to midnight, at 
Lundy’s Lane (July 25th). Both armies suffered, but ours 
had the advantage. Both Brown and Scott were wounded, 

15-H 


226 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and the advantage was not followed up. During the sum¬ 
mer, fresh troops were sent to Canada to invade our coun¬ 
try by Burgoyne’s route (303) . Their advance was checked 
by our fleet on Lake Champlain, which fought and defeated 
the British fleet in the harbor of Plattsburg (September 
11th, 1814). The invasion was then given up. 

[Commodore Thomas Macdonough commanded our fleet. The en¬ 
emy was under Commodore DoWnie. Macdonough had four war ves¬ 
sels and ten gunboats—in all eighty-six guns and 882 men, of whom he 
lost about 200. Downie had four war vessels and twelve gunboats, car¬ 
rying ninety-two guns and 937 men. His loss was about 300. Mac¬ 
donough announced his victory in the dispatch: “The Almighty has 
been pleased to grant us a signal victory on Lake Champlain, in the 
capture of one frigate, one brig, and two sloops-of-war of the enemy.”] 

446. British Ravages on the Coast. —British fleets had 
blockaded our shore during 1813 and 1814. At first they 
spared New England, as a friend to them; but soon they 
extended their depredations from Maine to Georgia, burn¬ 
ing defenseless towns and seizing private property. The 
larger cities were defended by torpedoes, and New York by 
a floating battery, the invention of Robert Fulton, and the 
beginning of steam gunboats. In 1814 the British took 
possession of Maine as far as the Penobscot River, causing 
great alarm throughout New England. 

447. Capture of Washington. —In August, 1814, a Brit¬ 
ish fleet arrived in the Chesapeake, with an army of 5,000 
men, under General Ross. Our capital was without de¬ 
fense, and fell an easy prey to the invaders. The government 
officers escaped, but the capitol and other public buildings 
were burned. Baltimore was the next point of attack. It 
made a brave and successful resistance. The British land 
force, was repulsed, Lord Ross being among the slain. The 
fleet bombarded Fort McHenry all night, without reducing 
it. Fleet and troops were now withdrawn—the fleet to 
continue plundering along the coast, the army to join an 
expedition against New Orleans. 


THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 227 


[Our total loss in 
the capture of Wash¬ 
ington was about 
$2,000,000. Our most 
valuable government 
papers had been re¬ 
moved, but the Brit¬ 
ish vandals spared 
not even the library of 
Congress. The attack 
on Fort McHenry 
was the occasion of 
the familiar song, 
“ The Star Spangled 
Banner,” written by 
Francis S. Key, who 
had fallen into the 
hands of the British, 
and was detained on 
a vessel in the har¬ 
bor. He composed 
the song while anx¬ 
iously pacing the deck 
of the vessel during 
the early morning 
hours, watching to 
see if our flag still 
floated over Fort Mc- 

Map Questions.—Has Washington any natu- ** enry J 
ral defenses? Was it protected by neighboring 
forts? Was there any reason why Baltimore 448. War in the 
could be defended more successfully than Wash- south was waged 
mgton? between the In¬ 

dians, fighting in the interest of the British, and militia from 
the southern states under the command of Andrew Jackson 
of Tennessee. Jackson was entirely successful in subduing, 
the Creeks, the most hostile tribe, and he was put in charge 
of military affairs in the south, with a commission as major- 
general. By energetic management he was ready to defend 
New Orleans against a British army of 12,000, which ar¬ 
rived in December, 1814, under Sir Edward Packenham. 
There were several night attacks and skirmishes, with no 








228 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


advantage on either side. On January 8th, 1815, the whole 
British army moved forward to attack Jackson’s inferior 
force, protected, however, by hasty intrenchments. That 



Map Questions.— Did the region around New Orleans offer any bar¬ 
riers to the approach of land troops from the southward ? Why would 
the possession of New Orleans have been valuable to the British ? 

(Read Lessons 84, 95, and 106, California Second Reader.) 

assault was terribly fatal to the British army. Packenham 
was killed, and what was left of his army retired to the 
ships and sailed to the West Indies. 

[The secret purpose of the attack on New Orleans was to capture 
and hold it after the conclusion of peace, as a means of wresting from 
us the territory of the Louisiana purchase. Jackson’s closing victory 
was the most creditable of the land exploits and made him the hero of 
the war. In the battle the British loss was over 2,500. Jackson had 
eight men killed and thirteen wounded.] 

449. On the Ocean.—Our navy began its brave and suc¬ 
cessful work immediately after the declaration of war, and 










THE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 229 

continued it until after the treaty of peace. The Essex , 
Captain Porter, made the first capture (August 13th, 1812), 
taking the Alert after a fight of only eight minutes. The 
first duel between ships equally matched was fought off 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence (August 19th), by our frigate Con¬ 
stitution, forty-four guns, Captain Isaac Hull, and the British 
frigate Guerriere , thirty-eight guns, Captain Dacres. There 
was no advantage in either ship, and bravery and skill 
decided the fight. After a skirmish at long range, the 
ships grappled, tried to board, and again cut loose. At the 
end of the fight the British frigate was a dismantled hulk, 
while the Constitution was in good trim, with only fourteen 
men lost. Never before had an English frigate hauled down 
her colors in equal fight. We had invaded Great Britain’s 
empire of the sea. It was the beginning of a series of naval 
contests which made America rejoice and England grow 
alarmed, which, more than anything else, gained honorable 
terms for us at the end of the war, and which brought the 
powers of Europe to respect the rights of commerce on the 
high seas. 

[Our ship-builders had been studying their business, and they turned 
out new ships that were improved sailers. Our gunners had put sights 
on their guns, while the Englishmen still handled their guns without 
sights. Moreover our captains and seamen were fighting for the honor 
of their country, and to win respect where thgy had been subjected to 
insults.] 

450. Peace had come to Europe in 1814 through the over¬ 
throw of Napoleon (387), allowing Great Britain to send her 
armies against us. Negotiations for peace with Great Brit¬ 
ain were under way during almost the whole war. In 1813 
the Emperor of Russia offered to act as umpire to decide 
the question of our war, and our representatives went at 
once to St. Petersburg. Great Britain was not so prompt 
to accept Russia as a mediator. Finally, the English am¬ 
bassadors met ours at Ghent, a city of Belgium, and, after 
an argumentative skirmish of several months, a treaty was 


230 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


agreed upon (December 24th, 1814), very satisfactory to 
both parties. This treaty of Ghent left all the original 
questions of the war unmentioned; nevertheless, they were 
practically settled, for the American flag has never since 
been treated with disrespect on the high seas. Our bound¬ 
aries remained the same as before the war. 

[Knowledge of the treaty would have prevented the battle of New 
Orleans, and also the four naval combats of 1815; but news traveled 
slowly in those days. A British sloop-of-war, under a flag of truce, 
brought the treaty to New York, February 11th, 1815. From that point 
messengers on horseback hurried the good news through the land.] 

Table of Combats on the Ocean—War of 1812. 

American. British. 


Ship. 

Commander. 

Ship. 

Date. 

Essex 

Porter 

Captures 

Alert 

Aug. 13 "i 


Constitution 

Hull 

Captures 

Guerriere 

Aug. 19 


Wasp 

Jacob Jones 

Captures 

Frolic 

Oct. 18 

■1812 

Wasp 

Jacob Jones 

Is captured by 

Poictiers 

Oct. 18 

United States 

Decatur 

Captures 

Macedonian 

Oct. 25 


Constitution 

Bainbridge. 

Captures 

Java 

Dec. 29 


Hornet 

Lawrence 

Captures 

Peacock 

Feb. 24 ' 


Essex 

Porter 

Captures 

Sever’l prizes 
on the Pacific 


•1813 

Chesapeake 

Lawrence 

Is captured by 

Shannon 

June 1 

Argus 

Allen 

Is captured by 

Pelican 

Aug. 14 


Enterprise. 

Burrows 

Captures 

Boxer 

Sept. 5 • 


Essex 

Porter 

Is captured by 

f Phoebe ) 

1 Cherub 3 

Mch.28 


Peacock 

Warrington 

Captures 

Epervier 

Apr. 28 

'1814 

Wasp 

Blakeley 

Captures 

Reindeer 

June 28 

Wasp 

Blakeley 

Captures 

Avon 

Sept. 1 

J 


President 

Decatur 

Is captured by 

A fleet 

Jan. 15 ' 


Constitution 

Stewart 

Captures 

fCyane 1 

1 Levant 3 

Feb. 20 

■1815 

Hornet 

Biddle 

Captures 

Penguin 

Mch.23 

Peacock 

Warrington 

Captures 

Nautilus 

June30, 



Merchantmen captured by Americans, about 1,800. 
Merchantmen captured by British, about 500. 















TIIE SONS OF THE FOUNDERS DEFEND THE FLAG. 231 

451. The Hartford Convention.—The New England dissatisfaction 
with the war (438) culminated in a convention of twenty-six Federalist 
politicians, at Hartford, Connecticut (December 18th, 1814). They rep¬ 
resented the New England states, but hardly the New England public 
sentiment. Their sessions were secret, but the general belief credited 
them with a plan to rebel against the United States in case of further 
continuance of the war. This belief was the finishing stroke to the 
Federalist party. Nothing ever came from the work of the convention, 
for the war had ended successfully. The news of peace and of Jack¬ 
son’s victory traveled through the land, filling it with rejoicing. The 
convention published a report calling for several constitutional amend¬ 
ments, chiefly to restrict the power of Congress in declaring war and 
in laying embargoes on commerce. This convention represented the 
doctrine of state sovereignty as opposed to the sovereignty of the 
United States, but the unpopularity of its schemes shows how strong 
the love for the national government was becoming.] 

452. Difficulties and Lessons of the War.—Our country 
began the war with the spirited plan of conquering Can¬ 
ada (439), but in a short time was hard pushed to defend 
our northern line. It was difficult and expensive work to 
maintain armies along an almost uninhabited frontier, and 
impossible to support them in an enemy’s country. New 
England, the most populous and wealthy section, had held 
aloof, and the sudden peace in Europe set free the British 
armies. The true strength of the country was shown when 
it became necessary to repel invasion. The war showed the 
need of trained soldiers and sailors. The army was never 
again reduced to Jefferson’s standard; the navy was kept 
up. The spirit of rebellion died with the war. The trust 
of the country was lodged more deeply in the national gov¬ 
ernment, as our security against oppression from abroad and 
jealous strife at home. 

453. The end of Madison’s administration found the 
country rapidly regaining prosperity. Imports increased 
with the revival of commerce, and the tariff yielded a rev¬ 
enue to pay the national debt (about $127,000,000 in 1815, 
$80,000,000 due to the war). Our navy had again brought 
the Barbary States to terms, and made them pay for ships 


232 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


they had captured during our war with Great Britain. 
Janies Monroe had done efficient duty in Madison’s cabinet, 
and the Republicans chose him as Madison’s successor. He 
was elected with very little opposition. Daniel D. Tomp¬ 
kins, who had been the “war governor” of New York, was 
elected Vice-President. 


[The Federalists voted for Rufus King, of New York, for President. 
Monroe had 183 electoral votes; King only thirty-four.] 

REVIEW. 

Copy and complete the following review: 


cs a 

r-q o 

£ o 

£ m 

*8 $3 

-w. "rj 

« Is 

3 © 
T3 — 1 

i-l ■+* 

o 2 

9 1 

3 « < 


f Causes. 


^ t -1 

CXJ 


Chief events. 


Treaty of Ghent. 


1. 

2 . 

1. Unsuccessful invasion of Canada. 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

1. 

2 . 

1. Need of an army and navy realized. 

2 . 

3. 

U 

Make a table of the military events of the war like that on page 
176. 


Results. 






NORTH AND SOUTH SET A DIVIDING LINE. 


233 


CHAPTER XXII. 

1817-1825. 

North and South Set a Dividing Line. 

For Explanation.— Diversified; paramount; tide water; caucus; 
dubbed; paralytic. 


James Monroe, Virginia, President. 


Daniel D. Tompkins, New York , Vice-President. 


CABINET. 





Richard Rush, 
William Wirt, 


| Attorney-General. 


454. The era of good feeling is the name often given to 
the time of President Monroe’s first term. The Federalist 
party was dead, and no new division into parties had yet 
been made. For twelve years all candidates and almost all 
voters claimed to be Republicans. Political conflicts were 
calmed, and the nation, now free from foreign interference, 
strode forward toward wealth and power. 

455. [James Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. His studies at 
William and Mary College (138) were interrupted by the outbreak of 
the Revolution, and he joined the continental army together with most 
of the professors and students. He served with credit as a captain, 
and after the war studied law under Jefferson. He was elected to the 
Virginia legislature, and afterwards to the Continental Congress. He 
opposed the Constitution, but was chosen United States Senator in the 
first Congress. He was envoy to France (1794-7); Governor of Virginia 
(1799); envoy to France, Spain, and England (1803); again in Virginia 
legislature (1810); Governor in 1811, and Madison’s Secretary of War 
(1811-17). He followed Jefferson in politics. At his second election as 
President he received every electoral vote but one. He died at New 
York in 1831.] 

456. Florida was the ground of a new Indian war, and 
of a new purchase. Runaway slaves from Georgia had 
always found shelter among the Seminole Indians of Flor¬ 
ida. During the war of 1812 the Seminoles had received 




234 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


arms from English officers. Georgians were annoyed by 
the hostility of the Seminoles, and especially by the shelter 
given to runaway slaves. Florida was Spanish territory, 
but Spain was too weak to maintain authority. During 
1817 there were frequent fights on the frontier. General 
Andrew Jackson, in command of the United States troops 
in the south, brought the long standing troubles to a close 
in a daring and reckless manner. Being ordered to take 
charge in Georgia, he immediately entered Florida, laid 
waste the Seminole country, seized Pensacola, a Spanish 
post, and hanged two British subjects on the charge of 
inciting the Seminoles to commit depredations. In five 
months he had conquered Florida. Jackson’s violent acts 
gave the government trouble with both England and Spain, 
but increased his popularity, especially in the South. Pen¬ 
sacola was given back to Spain, but further negotiations 
resulted in the purchase of Florida for $5,000,000. 

[Although the purchase was made in 1819 the treaty was not fully 
confirmed until 1821. It settled a dispute about the line between Lou¬ 
isiana and Texas, yielding to Spain all land west of the Sabine River.] 

457. Negro slavery had atlimes entered into many pub¬ 
lic questions, but did not by itself challenge the attention of 
the country till about 1820. Washington’s advice against 
geographical parties (395) was set aside when southern 
slave labor and northern free labor spread westward into 
new territory along parallel lines. Time only increased the 
difference in social and business habits between the two sec¬ 
tions, and this difference tended to separate them in politics. 

458. [Conflicting Interests.—The early leaders, like Jefferson, who 
had struggled to abolish slavery (379), or at least to pen it up within its 
ancient bounds, failed. The South was gradually given up to the few 
industries for which slave labor was practicable. On the other hand, 
commerce and manufactures were developed at the North, side by side 
with a diversified agriculture. Hence arose a conflict of interests be¬ 
tween North and South, revealing itself in national affairs, especially in 
the discussion of tariff questions.] 


NORTH AND SOUTH SET A DIVIDING LINE. 235 


459. New States and Slavery. —Owing to the more rapid 
increase of population at the North (393), the South feared 
that the slave states would, in time, be overwhelmingly 
outnumbered in Congress. It therefore became southern 
policy to oppose the admission of free states, and to increase 
as rapidly as possible the number of states admitted with 
slavery. New England, on the other hand, opposed the ad¬ 
mission of new states in the southwest, for with the decay 
of Federalism it seemed to New England that her power 
was passing from her. The matter of the extension of the 
slave system came up as a paramount question in 1818, 
when the people of Missouri applied for admission to the 
Union, with a constitution permitting slavery. Congress 
had agreed that it had no power to interfere with slavery, 
either in state or territory where it had existed at the be¬ 
ginning of the government. Now there was a new ques¬ 
tion: “Shall slavery be legalized in territory w T here there 
were no slaves when the United States gained possession?” 

[After Vermont and Kentucky (378) new states were admitted as 
follows: Tennessee, 1796, Ohio, 1802, and Louisiana, 1812—two with 
slavery and one without. Then Indiana, 1816, was followed by Missis¬ 
sippi, 1817; and Illinois, 1818, by Alabama, 1819—a free state paired off 
with a slave state each time.] 

460. Missouri Compromise. —For three years the ques¬ 
tion of the admission of Missouri was debated in Congress. 
A majority of the House opposed her admission as a slave 
state; a majority in the Senate favored it. The contest was 
practically ended in 1820, by a measure known in history 
as the Missouri Compromise, arranged chiefly by Henry 
Clay, Speaker of the House. This measure provided for 
admitting Maine as a free state, and Missouri as a slave 
state; but it prohibited slavery forever in all the rest of the 
Louisiana purchase north of the parallel 36° 30', the south¬ 
ern boundary of Missouri. 

[The compromise bill was passed by a large majority in both houses.] 


236 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


461. [The Negro Republic, Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, was 
founded in 1822, and honors President Monroe in the name of its cap¬ 
ital, Monrovia. The republic was the work of the American Coloniza¬ 
tion Society, organized in 1817, for the return of freed negroes to their 
native land. Several prominent men were connected with the society, 
but our government never took part in its work.] 

462. Internal Improvements. —Secretary of War Cal¬ 
houn recommended to Congress a system of roads and ca¬ 
nals, not only to facilitate commerce and the transportation 
of United States mails, but also as the best means of defense 
in time of war. This plan of employing national funds for, 
internal improvements had been generally disapproved by 
Jefferson and his followers. Congress, however, undertook 
the construction of a national road with easy grades and 
strong bridges, for the use of the westward emigrants. This 
road, known as the Cumberland road, beginning at Cum¬ 
berland, Maryland, was extended into Ohio, and finally 
into Indiana. 

463. The Erie Canal extends from Buffalo to Albany, 
joining Lake Erie with tide water on the Hudson. This 
great work had been proposed to the national government 
before the war of 1812, but the government declined, and 
the canal was finally constructed by the state of New York, 
chiefly through the influence of DeWitt Clinton, governor 
of the state during most of Monroe’s administration. Clin¬ 
ton’s “ Big Ditch” was strongly opposed as a useless expen¬ 
diture of public money. Its first cost was $7,600,000, nearly 
half of which the canal has sometimes paid in a year’s 
earnings. It is now operated by the state of New York 
without any charge to the persons using it. It has connec¬ 
tions with the central lakes in New York, and with the 
Alleghany, St. Lawrence, and Susquehanna Rivers. The 
success of the Erie Canal led other states to follow the ex¬ 
ample of New York. 

464. The Monroe Doctrine. —Spain held to the plan of 


NORTH AND SOUTH SET A DIVIDING LINE. 237 


taxing American colonies to the last dollar she could wring 
from them, until the decline of her power, and her weak¬ 
ness after the Napoleonic wars (387), enabled them to 
win independence. The entire Spanish possessions on the 
American Continents thus passed from her control. After 
establishing their independence, the colonies began to form 
republics. At this point several of the great monarchies 
of Europe were disposed to interfere, and to help Spain re¬ 
conquer her lost possessions. England, however, protested, 
and declared for the independence of Spanish-American 
republics. These events were referred to in the message 
of President Monroe to Congress, December, 1823, and his 
words on that occasion contained what has become known 
as the Monroe Doctrine. Briefly stated, it is as follows: 1. 
No more European colonies on the Western continents. 2. 
No more extension of European monarchical systems this 
side of the Atlantic. 3. No European interference with 
Spanish-American republics. 

[These principles are in accordance with Washington’s advice to 
keep free from European politics, and with Jefferson’s idea of America 
for Americans. They are broad principles of American patriotism, 
plainly stated by a patriotic President. Monroe’s firm stand was in 
accordance with the advice of Adams, his Secretary of State, whose 
long residence in Europe made him well qualified to advise. It might 
be called also the doctrine of Washington, Jefferson, Adams, or any 
genuine American.] 

465. Lafayette, who had survived the perils of the 
French Revolution (386), was invited in 1824 to visit our 
land, for whose independence he had fought in the days of 
his youth. Now an old man of sixty-eight, accompanied 
by his son, George Washington Lafayette, he spent a year 
in a tour through the country, so wonderfully changed since 
the war for Independence. Then every state touched salt 
water, and now there were states beyond the Mississippi. 
Everywhere he was received with rejoicing, and treated as 
the nation’s guest. He was present at the laying of the 


238 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



corner-stone of Bunker Hill monument, June 17th, 1825, 
the oration being delivered by Daniel Webster (473). At 
the end of his visit, he was carried back to France in a 

new United States frigate, 
the Brandywine , so called in 
honor of Lafayette’s share in 
the battle of that name (291). 
The United States also made 
him a present of $200,000, 
and a township of public 
lands. 

[Bunker Hill monument was 
completed in 1842, -and dedi¬ 
cated the following year, Webster 
again being the orator of the day. 
The monument cost something 
over $150,000.] 

466. The presidential elec¬ 
tion, in 1824, was a personal 
struggle between numerous 
candidates, all of them claim¬ 
ing to be Republicans. Up to 
this time there were no great 
party conventions, such as 
we have now, to nominate 
candidates, and nominations 
were usually made by a cau¬ 
cus of Congress¬ 
men. William 
H. Crawford, 
of Georgia, who 
had entered 
Congress with 
Clay (434) and 
Calhoun (435), 

Bunker Hill Monument. Was the caucus 











NORTH AND SOUTH SET A DIVIDING LINE. 239 

nominee for President. John Quincy Adams (468) was a 
candidate, and having served as Secretary of State stood in 
the line of promotion, which several elections had estab¬ 
lished. Andrew Jackson (479) was a candidate, as a war 
hero, and Henry Clay, as a parliamentary hero. Calhoun 
also desired the presidency, but was contented with the 
second place. The election made Calhoun Vice-President, 
but for the first place no candidate had a majority of elect¬ 
oral votes, and the choice, therefore, rested with the House 
of Representatives. The House elected John Quincy Ad¬ 
ams. From the number of candidates, this election was 
dubbed “the scrub race for the presidency.” 

[The electoral vote stood: Jackson ninety-nine, Adams eighty-four, 
Crawford forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. By the Constitution (see 
XII. Amendment), Clay could not be a candidate before the House of 
Representatives, and Crawford having become a paralytic, the contest 
lay between Adams and Jackson. The influence of Clay was sufficient 
to decide, and he preferred Adams to J ackson. The vote in the House 
stood for Adams thirteen, Jackson seven, Crawford four.] 

QUESTIONS. 

Give all the causes you can find that made the “ era of good feeling.” 

What were the circumstances of the acquisition of Florida? 

Bound the United States, January 1, 1804. (See map following p. 
256.) 

Bound the United States, January 1, 1820. (See map following p. 
256.) 

What was the contest over the admission of Missouri? 

Explain how the Senate and House of Representatives came to he 
opposed. 

What was conceded on either side? 

If extended to the Pacific, where would the line of the Missouri 
compromise cut California ? 

What reasons can you give why the United States should control 
post offices and the carrying of mails ? 

What canals do you know of in California ? Who constructed them ? 
What difficulties hinder private parties from digging canals ? 

Who builds and takes care of roads in California? Make a list of 
all the republics on the American continents. 

Find out what you can about a Panama canal. Who do you think 
should have the control of such a canal? Of the first six Presidents, 
w T ho had been Secretaries of State? Who Vice-Presidents? 


466. How had 'preceding elections established “ a line of promotion?” 






240 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXIII. 

1825-1829. 

A Protective Tariff and New Political Parties. 

John Quincy Adams, Massachusetts , President. 

John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, Vice-President. 

CABINET. 

Henry Clay—State. Janies Barbour, 1 

Richard Rush—Treasury. Peter B. Porter, j ar * 

Samuel L. Southard—Navy. William Wirt—Attorney-General. 

467. The administra¬ 
tion of J. Q. Adams does 
not mark any return to 
the Federalism of his 
father (401). Like his 
father, however, the Pres¬ 
ident was a self-willed, 
independent man, who 
had no skill to act as a 
leader, and who would 
not follow the leadership 
of any one else. During 
his term new political 
questions came before the 
people, and new party 
lines were drawn. The 
country in general con- 

468. [John Quincy Adams, the son of John Adams, was born in 
Massachusetts in 1767. Having graduated at the age of twenty, with 
high standing at Harvard College, he established himself as a lawyer in 
Boston. At the age of twenty-seven he was appointed Minister to The 
Netherlands, by President Washington. Returning to Boston in 1801, 
he was elected by the Federalists to the Massachusetts legislature, and 
thence to the United States Senate; but so little did he act with the 
Federalists that he was regarded as a traitor to the party. President 
Madison appointed him minister to Russia (1809), the first officer of the 



John Quincy Adams. 
tinued on its prosperous course. 



NEW POLITICAL PARTIES. 


241 


United States to live at St. Petersburg. Afterwards he was Minister to 
England (1815-17), and Monroe’s Secretary of State (1817-25). Defeated 
for a second presidential term, he was elected and reelected to the 
House of Representatives, performing there, till his death, in 1848, the 
most honored services of his life. When a majority in Congress tried 
to shut out petitions for the abolition of slavery and to cut off all dis¬ 
cussion of slavery questions (509), Adams stood up fearlessly fighting 
for the right of petition and freedom of speech, with all the power of a 
masterly intellect and a biting sarcasm in debate which made him re¬ 
spected even by his foes.] 

469. Fourth of July, 1826, was celebrated with more 
than usual spirit. To us it is still memorable as the end 
of the earthly life of two great men, Thomas Jefferson, the 
author, and John Adams, the foremost defender of the 
Declaration of Independence (275). They had passed 
down the declining years of life in genuine friendship, and 
in the feebleness of age their one last wish was to see the 
sun rise on the fiftieth birthday of the country that they 
loved. To that day their lives were spared. “To their 
country they yet live, and live forever.” 

470. A Congress at Panama of representatives of all the 
republics (464) of North America and South America was 
planned, in 1826, to consider the independence, peace, and 
security of the continents. President Adams approved the 
movement and appointed commissioners to represent our 
country, but Congress delayed providing for expenses, and 
the meeting was over before our commissioners reached 
Panama. 

[The delay was caused by the reluctance of United States slave own¬ 
ers to be associated with the Spanish-American republics which had 
extinguished the slave system.] 

471. The tariff had remained substantially as arranged 
by the first Congress (364) until 1816. Then the debt in¬ 
curred in the war of 1812 led to a revision of the duties. 
The experience of the country had tended to bring a pro¬ 
tective tariff into favor (366), and the law of 1816 estab¬ 
lished low protective rates. Four years later there was a 

16-H 


242 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


call for higher rates, the argument being that peaceful 
years in Europe had lessened the demand for American 
grain, and that it was desirable to induce capitalists to un¬ 
dertake further manufactures at home, thus creating a 
market at home for the products of agriculture. A bill pro¬ 
viding for high protective rates was defeated in Congress 
in 1820, but a similar bill was passed in 1824. In 1828 a 
new tariff was established w r ith still higher protective rates. 

472. [Growth of Sectional Opposition.— In 1816 the opposition to a 
protective tariff was not sectional. Calhoun, representing the opinion 
of South Carolina, favored it, while strong opposition came from New 
England. In 1824 Clay, representing Kentucky, was the foremost de¬ 
fender of protective ideas, general support coming from the Middle 
States, while Webster (473), representing to a considerable extent the 
opinions of New England, stood strongly for unrestricted trade. In 
1828 New England had joined with the Middle States, and Webster be¬ 
came henceforth the companion of Clay in the defense of the protective 
system. Webster explained the change by saying that New England 
had accepted the verdict of the nation in 1824 in favor of protection, 
and had given up commerce and shipping in favor of manufacturing. 
At the same time general opposition to protective tariffs had grown up 
in most of the Southern States—strongest in South Carolina. Agricult¬ 
ure had become the one great industry of the South, the people living by 
the sale of raw products, and importing goods extensively from Europe.] 

473. [Daniel Webster was born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, in 
1782. Being a weak and tender child, he was spared the farm work of 
a New England boy, and had all his time to roam the woods, to read, 
and go to school. At Dartmouth College he read everything “ he could 
lay hands on, and remembered everything he read.” He could learn 
anything he tried to learn, and with wonderful quickness. At college 
he began his life as an orator. He loved to speak, and his audience 
loved to listen. His family was poor, every member toiling and sacri¬ 
ficing to give him an education. He, too, shared the burden, working 
hard for himself and the others, and his education and power of ora¬ 
tory brought him wealth and prominence. After becoming known in 
New Hampshire as a lawyer and legislator, he moved to Massachusetts, 
and was sent to Congress, where he won political leadership, national 
fame, and the love of New England. . He was Representative from 
Massachusetts (1823-7), Senator (1827-41), Secretary of State (1841-3), 
again Senator (1845-50), and again Secretary of State till his death, in 

Read extracts from the 'public speeches of Webster , Lessons 114, It fa 128, 
144 , 159> 77£, Third Reader, California State Series. 



NEW POLITICAL PARTIES. 


243 


1852. No man ever lived with greater power to control his fellow men 
by eloquence. An imposing presence, a powerful intellect, and vigor of 
imagination, combined to make him the greatest of American orators, 
and as great as any the world has known.] 





$&£i£Eigg 


1. Webster, 


2. Calhoun 


3. Clay 





































244 


HISTORY OF THE UNITER STATES. 


474. “ The American System.”—The clearest arguments 
of the time in support of protective tariffs are to be found 
in the speeches of Henry Clay. He admitted that a system 
of free trade, or of tariff’s laid simply for revenue, was suited 
to a country like England—small, exhausted in soil, and a 
monarchy in government. On the other hand, he claimed 
that for America, a new and vast country of undeveloped 
resources, and democratic in government, the true system 
for general prosperity was a system of high protective tar¬ 
iffs, all revenue derived from duties in excess of govern¬ 
ment expenses to be expended by the national government 
in improving rivers, harbors, roads, etc. Hence a system 
of protective tariff’s and internal improvements (462) came 
to be called “The American System.” 

475. New Parties.—The principles of the American Sys¬ 
tem incorporated in the tariff laws of 1824 and 1828, found 
favor in New England and the Middle States, while most 
of the Southern States began a strong opposition. Western 
States were divided. Among leaders, Adams, Clay, and 
Webster defended the American System; Calhoun and 
Jackson fought against it. Hence arose a division between 
men who had called themselves Republicans. The follow¬ 
ers of Adams, Clay, and Webster took the name of “ Na¬ 
tional Republicans,” the word “ National” standing for the 
early Federalist idea of a powerful national government. 
The followers of Jackson and Calhoun now accepted the 
name of Democrats. Thus the old Democratic-Republican 
party (389) separated into two branches, dividing its name 
between them, and each claiming at the time to inherit its 
principles. 

476. [State Sovereignty.—The difference between these two parties 
in regard to their views of the national government may be expressed 
by saying that the National Republicans favored a “loose construction” 
and the Democrats a “ strict construction ” of the constitution (385). 
Calhoun and his immediate followers cherished the doctrine of “ state 
rights,” or state sovereignty, which had received expression in the Res- 


NEW POLITICAL PARTIES. 


245 


olutions of ’98 (406). Derived from the ideas of the early Republicans, 
who desired to be on guard lest the general government should absorb 
the powers of the states, the doctrine of “ state rights ” now meant that 
the United States constitution was simply a compact between inde¬ 
pendent, sovereign states, and that the general government belonged 
to the people, only through their states. In case of conflict between a 
state and the general government, men who cherished this doctrine 
would support their state and not the general government.] 


477. The Presidential contest was decided as between 
two men, and not between two parties. Jackson was before 
the people as a candidate from the day of Adams’s election, 
and the question had been^mply who would gain the most 
support in four years. Jackson was elected President, and 
Calhoun was reelected to the second place. 

[The National Republican candidates, J. Q. Adams and Richard 
Rush, received eighty-three electoral votes against 178 for Jackson.] 


REVIEWS. 

i 

' 1. Reasons for. . 
Protective Tariff, 1828. .j 2. Supported by. . 

(3. Opposed by. . 



What section. 
What statesmen. 

What section. 
What statesmen. 


Parties, 1828. 


' Democratic, 


1. Origin. 

2. Principles. 

3. Leaders. 


i l. Origin. 

2. Principles. 
3. Leaders. 


QUESTIONS. 

Make a list of American republics at the present date. During what 
period should you say that our government was managed by men con¬ 
cerned in its foundation ? In other words, what dates should you give 
for the “ period of the founders ?” Write a short essay comparing the 
United States July 4, 1826, and the United States July 4, 1776. What 
reasons can you give why the United States government should manage 
the improvement of rivers and harbors? Who owns San Francisco 
Bay? Write a sketch of the history of political parties in the United 
States from 1787 to 1828. 






246 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXIV. 

1829-1837. 

Jackson and the People. 


Andrew Jackson, Tennessee , President. 
John C. Calhoun, Sotith Carolina, 

Martin Van Buren, New York , 

CABINET. 


Vice-President. 


Martin Van Buren, 1 
Edward Livingston, ! 

Louis McLane, 

John Forsyth, 

Samuel D. Ingham. 

Louis McLane, 

William J. Duane, 

Roger B. Taney, 

Levi Woodbury, 

William T. Barry, 
Amos Kendall, 


X 


rState. 


Treasury. 


John H. Eaton, 
Lewis Cass, 

John Branch, 

Levi Woodbury, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
John M. Berrien, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Benjamin F. Butler ,) 

> Postmaster-General. 


War. 


Navy. 


Attorney-General. 


1. Political Affairs. 

478. The presidency of Andrew Jackson marks a 
change in the political methods of our country. In this 
time began the systematic organization of political parties, 
by means of state and local committees; the choice of can¬ 
didates through great national conventions, and the publi¬ 
cation of party principles in platforms , which nominees are 
pledged to support. The years of Jackson’s presidency 
were distinguished by a series of stirring political contests, 
but they are especially memorable for great improvements 
made by our people in business life, and for advances made 
in scholarship and literature. 

479. [Andrew Jackson was born in 1767, of Scotch-Irish parents. 
His birthplace, probably, was in North Carolina, although near the 
southern boundary of the state. Almost without education, he never¬ 
theless became a lawyer in the frontier state of Tennessee, and through 
the native force of his character he won a prominent position. He was 

What difference can you point out between President Jackson and his 
predecessors , in regard to experience in affairs of the national govemmentf 
What had Jackson done to commend himself to the people? 







JACKSON AND THE PEOPLE. 


247 


in Congress for brief periods 
as Representative (1796), and 
Senator (1797). From 1798 to 
1804 he was a judge in the 
Supreme Court of Tennessee. 
Then he became a planter, 
but up to the age of forty-five 
he had established no great 
reputation, except as a man 
of violent temper, and an ex¬ 
perienced duelist. The war 
of 1812 gave him a national 
fame. After his second term 
he retired to his plantation, 
the “ Hermitage,” near Nash¬ 
ville, Tennessee, but he held 
a controlling hand in politics 
until his death in 1845. His 
nickname, “ Old Hickory,” 
gives some idea of his charac¬ 
ter. He regarded an oppo¬ 
nent as a personal enemy, 
and could see neither a fault 
in a friend, nor a virtue in a foe. He lived to see the defeat of all his 
rivals.] 

480. Removals from office filled by presidential appoint¬ 
ment were very rare under the early Presidents. A man 
who did his work well was seldom discharged, even when 
a President was elected from an opposite political party. 
The growth of the country had greatly increased the num¬ 
ber of offices, creating many positions that paid good sal¬ 
aries, and under President Jackson a new system was 
introduced. Many men, who were not supporters of Jack- 
son, were removed, and their places were filled by Demo¬ 
crats. This system of filling the offices of the country with 
the political supporters of the President was called “rota¬ 
tion in office.” It is also known as the “ spoils system,” 
a name taken from the saying, “ To the victors belong the 
spoils,” put forward as a political maxim. The spoils sys¬ 
tem, followed very generally by political parties since Jack- 
son’s time, has been the cause of much evil and corruption. 



Andrew Jackson. 


248 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


[Removals by the first six Presidents amounted to seventy-four, 
most of them for unfitness. In his first year Jackson removed 491 
postmasters and 239 other officers.] 

481. Three Great Contests.—The United States Bank, 
protective tariffs, and state sovereignty were the subjects of 
fierce political warfare during these years. The President 
had come into office pledged to economy and the prompt 
payment of the national debt (453). Everything that he 
believed to be an abuse in the government he was ready to 
attack as he would a personal foe. He was opposed to the 
bank, believed in reducing tariffs to avoid a surplus in reve¬ 
nue, and swore “by the Eternal! ” that he would maintain 
the authority of the United States. The bank was killed, 
the tariff was compromised, and the attempt to put ideas 
of state sovereignty into practice was defeated. These re¬ 
sults were reached during Jackson’s second term, and the 
issues leading to them made up chiefly the presidential 
campaign of 1832, which began early and was fought bit¬ 
terly. 

482. [History of the Bank.—Congress refused to renew the charter 
of Hamilton’s bank (385), and it closed up its*affairs in good order in 
1811. In 1816 financial embarrassments from the war debts (453) 
brought about a new bank, modeled after the first, and likewise char¬ 
tered for twenty years. The second bank was not always well man¬ 
aged, and gave offense to some by interfering in politics. Under the 
management of Clay, a bill was passed in Congress just before the 
presidential election of 1832, renewing the bank charter. The President 
promptly vetoed the bill, thus giving the people a chance to decide at 
the polls between “the bank” and “Jackson.” After his reelection 
President Jackson caused the government fupds to be removed and to 
be deposited in local banks. In 1836 the bank tried to continue its life 
by taking out a charter in Pennsylvania, under the absurd name of 
the “ Bank of the United States of Pennsylvania,” but it perished in 
the general ruin of banks in the years following 1837 (503).] 

483. The chief presidential nominees in 1832 were Clay, 
representing the National Republicans, and Jackson, repre¬ 
senting the Democrats (475). Clay favored the American 


Jj82. In 1832 how many years had the charter to run? 



JACKSON AND THE PEOPLE. 


249 


System (474) and the bank, to both of which Jackson was 
opposed. Jackson won a sweeping victory. Martin Van 
Buren (500), of New York, was elected Vice-President. 

[Jackson received 219 electoral votes, Clay forty-nine. South Caro¬ 
lina cast her eleven votes for John Floyd, who represented opposition 
to the national tariff laws. Vermont gave her seven votes to William 
Wirt, the nominee of an Anti-Masonic party, which had a short-lived 
existence in a few northern states. It represented opposition to secret 
organizations, especially to the order of Freemasons.] 

484. South Carolina against the United States.—Sev¬ 
eral southern states joined with South Carolina in protest¬ 
ing against the protective tariff of 1828 (471), but she alone 
proceeded to resist the law. Near the end of 1832 the state 
government called a convention, which declared the United 
States tariff law null and void, forbade all citizens of South 
Carolina to pay duties, and threatened secession from the 
Union and armed resistance should the general government 
maintain its custom house at Charleston. Resistance was 
to begin on February first. President Jackson promptly 
ordered two war vessels to Charleston, with sufficient troops 
to see the legal duties collected. At the same time a calm 
and dignified address, written by Secretary of State Liv¬ 
ingston, was issued to the people of South Carolina. It 
presented the sound argument that to nullify a United 
States law was to destroy the Union, and appealed to the 
patriotism for which South Carolina had early been distin¬ 
guished. The state paused, and meanwhile Congress un¬ 
dertook a revision of the tariff. 

485. [Calhoun’s Ideas.—South Carolina was acting upon the as¬ 
sumption that the protective tariff laws were unconstitutional (497). 
(The question of constitutionality could never be brought before the 
United States courts, for the reason that the words of the later tariff 
laws omitted the reference to protecting home industries, which the 
preamble to the first law (364) had contained, and there was no contest 
over the right of Congress to levy taxes.) In this attempt to nullify a 
national law, South Carolina followed the advice and leadership of Cal¬ 
houn, who had given up his hope of the presidency and devoted him¬ 
self to the affairs of his state. He believed that slavery was “ a positive 


250 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


good,” and that there was a permanent conflict of interests between 
the “staple states” of the South arid the rest of the Union, because 
from their “soil, climate, habits, and peculiar labor,” the southern 
states would always be devoted to their “ ancient and favorite pursuit” 
of agriculture. From this conflict of interests he thought that there 
was constant danger of unjust laws. He wished not to destroy, but to 
preserve the Union, and fixed upon “ nullification ” as a means of avoid¬ 
ing conflict, and as a safeguard against secession, or withdrawal from 
the Union. Clear-headed and logical as he was, he did not see the 
absolute contradiction between nullification and government through 
law, between state supremacy and a united nation.] 

486. The Compromise Tariff, 1833.—A bill to reduce 
tariff rates about one half within two years was before 
Congress during January, 1833, with no strong prospect of 
passage, but with support enough to make some friends of 
protection fear an approaching overthrow. In February, a 
new bill, planned and arranged by Clay, now in the Senate, 
was substituted. It was called a compromise bill, and pro¬ 
vided for the gradual reduction of all duties over twenty 
per cent ad valorem , one tenth of such duties being deducted 
yearly until 1842, when it w T as calculated that all duties 
would have the uniform rate of twenty per cent. This bill 
became a law, and South Carolina repealed her nullifica¬ 
tion ordinance. 

[Clay claimed that his bill preserved the principle of protective tariffs 
and averted civil war, for Congress about the same time had passed an 
“ enforcement bill,” authorizing the President to employ land and naval 
forces in the collection of revenue. President Jackson gained the credit 
of having defended the Union.] 

487. Whigs.—While President, Jackson acted as the 
chief of the Democratic party, and his influence was felt 
everywhere. His administration has been characterized as 
“the reign of Andrew Jackson.” His political opponents 
called him a tyrant, and adopted the name of Whigs, a 
name recalling the patriots, who, in revolutionary days, had 
withstood the tyranny of George III. (221). The Whig 
party was essentially the National Republican party under 

486. Who were the parties to the tariff compromise f What concessions 
were made by each? 



JACKSON AND THE PEOPLE. 


251 


a new name, representing support of the American System, 
a United States Bank, and nationalism, as opposed to “ state 
rights ” (476). 

488. [Webster-Hayne Debate.—The speeches of Webster, in the 
United States Senate, often set forth the national idea of the Whig 
party. One speech is especially memorable, delivered in a “great de¬ 
bate,” during the winter of 1829-30. The original question, regarding 
the sale of public land in the west, was lost sight of in a general discus¬ 
sion of the nature of the Union, and the powers of our national govern¬ 
ment. Upon this theme came the grand contest between Webster and 
Robert Y. Hayne, of South Carolina, who was afterwards governor of 
that state during the nullification trouble (484). Hayne had desired 
that new states in the west might have the proceeds from the sale of 
land within their limits, believing independence and sovereignty of the 
state to be the life of the republic, and no evil so much to be feared as 
consolidation in the general government; and, in a formal speech, he 
set forth the doctrine of state sovereignty (476). In reply, Webster dis¬ 
cussed the origin of the government, whether it was in fact created by 
state governments or by the people. He found for answer not that “ it 
was the creature of thirteen wills, and now the servant of twenty-four,” 
but that “it was the people’s constitution, the people’s government; 
made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people.” 
Both speeches were widely read, and made a deep impression upon the 
country.] 

489. The Presidential election of 1836 resulted in favor 
of the Democrats, with Martin Van Buren for President. 
The Whigs were not well organized, and their votes were 
divided between several men, William Henry Harrison 
(513) of Ohio, receiving the largest number. 

[The total electoral vote was divided between five men : Van Buren, 
170; Harrison, seventy-three; Hugh L. White, twenty-six (votes of Ten¬ 
nessee and Georgia); Daniel Webster, fourteen (vote of Massachusetts); 
and Willie P. Mangum eleven (vote of South Carolina).] 

QUESTIONS. 

How were candidates for the last election nominated for the offices 
of your county? 

How were the last presidential candidates nominated? 

If a presidential election is held this year, read the party platformg 
when they appear in the newspapers. 

Who is your postmaster ? How was he appointed ? 


252 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


2. Development. 

490. The people of the United States during Jackson’s 
time enjoyed universal prosperity. Immigration from Eu¬ 
rope fluctuated from year to year, increasing from about 
8,000 in 1820 to 80,000 in 1840. These new-comers did not 
generally press on to the new lands of the west, as the early 
immigrants had done (393), but settling in the great cities 
they began to form a wage-earning class, especially in the 
manufacturing centers. Becoming citizens and voters, 
their influence began to count in United States politics as 
“the foreign vote.” They brought with them habits and 
prejudices from old world society, but no new institutions. 

491. Social reforms were commenced in movements to 
do away with drunkenness, with cruelty of punishment in 
prisons, and with negro slavery. The movement against 
drunkenness was carried on by temperance societies, which 
began about 1830 to spread through the country. They re¬ 
quired of members a pledge, not of total abstinence from 
the use of intoxicating drinks, but only of moderation. 
The movement for prison reform accomplished the aboli¬ 
tion of imprisonment for debt, and of the harsh penalties 
that had been common in the laws of all countries. The 
penitentiary system was substituted, founded upon the be¬ 
lief that no human beings are utterly bad, and that prisons 
should offer opportunities for improvement through work 
and instruction. The movement against slavery was known 
as “abolitionism,” and its promoters as “Abolitionists.” 

492. The Abolitionists, about 1831, began to speak and 
print their belief that negro slavery was sinful and injuri¬ 
ous to the country. In 1833 they founded a national 
anti-slavery society, with branches throughout the north¬ 
ern states. The method of the Abolitionists was to print 
and circulate arguments against slavery, to petition Con¬ 
gress for its abolition in the District of Columbia, and to 
urge owners to emancipate their slaves, slave states to 


JACKSON AND THE PEOPLE. 253 

abolish the system, and free states and slave states alike 
to aid in the education of negroes. 

493. The inventions of these years laid a foundation for 
new industries. John Ericsson (see portrait, p. 268), in 
1836, invented the screw propeller, which was an advan¬ 
tage to ocean steamers and made them suitable for war 
ships. Steamers began to make regular trips across the At¬ 
lantic. A reaping machine was patented, and Colt’s revolv¬ 
ers were a new thing in firearms. Friction matches came 
into use (about 1836), and displaced the patience-taxing 
flint and steel that our fathers used for kindling fires. 

494. Railroads more than anything else changed Amer¬ 
ican life to what it is now. Beginnings were made in the 
administration of Adams. In 1827 short lines of rails for 
horse cars were laid at Quincy, Massachusetts, and Albany, 
New York. Englishmen were working at locomotive en¬ 
gines from 1825 to 1829, and an English locomotive was 
brought to America and made its first trip in 1828, near 
Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. The same year a steam 
railroad was chartered to run westward from Charleston, 
South Carolina. During Jackson’s time railroads multi¬ 
plied throughout the Atlantic states. 

[Americans made great improvements in the locomotive, and the 
locomotive made improvements in Americans, developing promptness 
and punctuality. The old stage-coach was slow and not punctual. The 
early river steamboats did not make regular trips and would wait two 
days to get a load, and stop anywhere along the bank for passengers to 
get on or off.] 

495. General education became the subject of careful 
study on the part of earnest men. The founders of our gov¬ 
ernment saw clearly that a republic can be founded only 
upon the intelligence of its citizens. Early in the century, 
religious test for office holders, and property qualifications 
for voters, began to disappear, and the democratic idea of 
manhood suffrage was sweeping into favor. Our fathers 
saw that if a state permits every man to vote, it must, for 
its own sake, see that every man has the education that 


254 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



will make him an intelligent voter. Common school edu¬ 
cation, for which Massachusetts colony (291) had laid 

ii. fniUu 


Longfellow. 

was a favorite plan with 
Washington. The United 
States has, however, never 
undertaken the work of pub¬ 
lic education, and states have 
arranged their school sys¬ 
tems for themselves (733). 
In 1845 the United States 
established the Naval Acad¬ 
emy, at Annapolis, for train¬ 
ing naval officers, just as 
army officers were trained at 
West Point (437). By gifts 
of land (731) the United 
States has assisted state 
schools and colleges.] 


497. American Lit¬ 
erature.—After the great 
outburst of political essays at the time of the Revolution, 





Jackson and the people. 


255 



and the establishment of our government (360), little writ¬ 
ing appeared to form an American Literature, until about 

1830. Many reasons for 
this may be found in the 
life and education of our 
people. There was, how¬ 
ever, some good writing 
all the time. Newspapers 
improved in form and 
style, and the introduc¬ 
tion of steam printing 
presses brought about the 
modern dailies—papers 
of large size, wide circula¬ 
tion, and low price. Criti- 


W HITTIER. 

cal magazines, like the 
“ North American Re¬ 
view,” afforded miscel¬ 
laneous reading, and 
stimulated an improved 
style in writing. From 
1820 to 1840, many of 
the most distinguished 
writers of the nineteenth 
century began the great 
works which have built 
up the business of book 
publishing in America, 
given reading to the Lowell. 

American public, and 

standing to the American branch of English literature. 


256 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



[Early in the century came the writers of the “Knickerbocker 
School,” who centered at New York. The greatest of them is Wash¬ 
ington Irving, who introduced an easy and graceful prose style into 
American writing. The novels of James Fenimore Cooper, begun in 


1. Bancroft. 


2. Prescott, 


3. Motley. 


4. Irving, 























































































































o 1 

\ 

•• r i 

i 

( o\ 

ik ^ 

k %• 



































































\ 





i' ' 1 % 


‘Portland 


.Buftal^oV 2 -^^ 


PhilaMelpnia qJ^Qt 


Peoria 


y/e/d 

^Kp Alton 


Norfolk 


St. Louis°V| 
KaskaskiaS 


3asW^ue_ p. 


^yileigbd 

K\0 TAX N a 


Knoxville 


Wilmington 


little Rock* 


Charleston 


‘Savannah 


Narchcz^ 






ra «c* 


Jacksonville 
kSt. Augustine 


SCALE 


2 00 


300 


1*00 


MAP OF 

UNITED STATES ENT 1830. 

1I5_llo 5 l_oj 




































































































































































■■ 




































































* 




























































JACKSON AND THE PEOPLE. 


257 



1821, were the first works in American fiction to be extensively read. 
Nathaniel Hawthorne, our greatest novelist, began publishing in 1837. 
The great poets, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 
John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendell Holmes, and James Russell 
Lowell were contemporaries of Hawthorne. Edgar Allen Poe was first 

known as a maga¬ 
zine writer, and 
later as a poet. 
George Bancroft 
published thefirst 
volume of his 
“ History of the 
United States ” in 
1834. William H. 
Prescott, about 
this time, pub¬ 
lished his “ Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabel¬ 
la,” and Motley, 
the historian of 
the Netherlands, 
was rising in¬ 
to prominence. 
American states¬ 
men produced a 
few speeches that 
live in literature. 
Law and politics 
were professions 
attracting men of 
the highest abil- 

Hawthorne. ity.] 


498. The country continued to enjoy peace with foreign 
nations, and President Jackson’s vigorous management 
protected American commerce. The advance of settle¬ 
ments brought on the usual Indian conflicts. In Georgia 
the Cherokees, perhaps the most intelligent and progressive 
of the Indian tribes, gave annoyance in Adams’s time by 
refusing to move west of the Mississippi. Under Jackson 
their transportation was accomplished. Indians in Illinois, 
Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by the chief Black Hawk, made 
war upon the settlers, and were subdued only after hard 

17-H 



258 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


fighting. This is known as the Black Hawk war, from the 
name of the Indian chief. In Florida the Seminoles, under 
the lead of Osceola, gave even more serious trouble. In 
the end they were forced to move beyond the Mississippi. 
Our map shows the advance of population and the begin¬ 
ning of cities in the new states. Railroad building led to 
careful surveys, and surveys drew attention to mineral 
wealth hitherto unthought of. Still the Rocky Mountains 
and all beyond them were unexplored regions, save in the 
direction of Oregon. School geographies gave no informa¬ 
tion at all about the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and con¬ 
tinued for many years to describe most of the land west of 
Kansas as the “ Great American Desert.” 


REVIEW. 


POLITICAL AFFAIRS. 


“ Spoils system.’ 
f Bank. . . 


$ <! Tariff. 


“ State 
l rights.” 


Whig party. 


1. Causes. 

2. Incidents. 
13. Results. 

( 1. Causes. 

2. Incidents. 
a 3. Results. 

1. Causes. 

2. Incidents. 

3. Results. 


DEVELOPMENT. 


People. . . . ) 1. Immigration. 

1 2. Indian troubles. 

fl. 

Reforms.. . . J 2 . 

1 3 . 


Inventions. . 


1 . 
2 . 
3. 

Education and C 1. 
Literature. . 9 
3. 


Questions on Map of 1830.— Bound the United States in 1830. Name, 
in order, the states admitted since the original thirteen. Name the 
rivers that formed state boundaries. What rivers afforded avenues for 
inland commerce in 1830? Bound Louisiana as ceded in 1803. In 1830 
how many states had been formed from it? Bound the Northwest 
Territory of 1830. How much had it been reduced since 1789? By 
what process? What was the general shape of the United States in 
1830 ? In what direction was there the best opportunity for expansion ? 
Where was the geographical center of the United States in 1789? The 
center of population ? The geographical center in 1830 ? The center of 
population? How many states were there in 1830? Which had the 
largest population ? Which the least ? 





SPECULATION AND PANIC. 


259 


CHAPTER XXV. 

1837 - 1841 . 

Speculation and Panic. 


Martin Van Buren, New York , President. 
R. M. Johnson, Kentucky, Vice-President. 

CABINET. 


John Forsyth—State. 

Levi Woodbury—Treasury. 
Joel R. Poinsett—War. 
Mahlon Dickerson, | 

James K. Paulding, j ^ av ^‘ 


Amos Kendall, ) 

John M. Niles, p^^er-General. 
Benjamin F. Butler, 'J 
Felix Grundy, f A ^ < *' Gen ' 

Henry D. Gilpin, ) 


499. “Hard Times.”—The prosperous years of Jack¬ 
son’s terms were followed by a period of business stagna¬ 
tion, bringing loss and even suffering. Besides business 
troubles, there were angry disturbances brought about by 
the bold utterances of Abolitionists (492), and the begin¬ 
ning of annoyance in the west from the practices of Mor¬ 
mons (510). The record of President Van Buren’s term is 
one of troubles, business disaster being the chief. 

500. [Martin Van Buren was born in New York, in 1782. With only 
a superficial education, he became a lawyer, and filled various offices in 
the state of New York. He was United States Senator (1821-8), and 
Governor of New York for three months (1828), resigning to become 
President Jackson’s Secretary of State (1829-31). President Jackson 
appointed him Minister to England, but the Senate refused to confirm 
the appointment, whereupon he was elected Vice-President (1833-7), 
becoming, thereby, the presiding officer of the Senate. Defeated for 
reelection to the presidency in 1840, and again in 1848 (541), he passed 
the rest of his life in retirement. He died in 1862.] 

501. Speculation.—The prosperous years of Jackson’s 
first term were followed by speculation, chiefly in land. 
Eastern cities like New York were growing rapidly, and 
real estate rising everywhere in value, induced people to 
invest all their spare capital. The United States sold 
lands in the western states for $1 25 an acre, to any one 
wishing to buy. The Erie Canal (463) and improved 
steamboats made western lands more accessible, and there- 



260 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

fore more valuable. City lots and western lands were bought 
and sold again, largely on credit. For a few years (1834-6) 
speculation on credit reigned supreme. Men deserted farm¬ 
ing to become bankers and real estate brokers. But while 
cities were full of life and grew with marvelous rapidity, 
in 1836 it became necessary to import supplies of flour and 
wheat. 

502. Banks.—Trading on credit was greatly increased 
through the agency of banks, which sprang up all over the 
country in great numbers. Bank notes, which were really 
only promises to pay coin, circulated as money. There 
were no laws controlling the formation of banks, or for in¬ 
specting their condition. The opposition to the United 
States Bank, and the withdrawal of the government funds 
(482), gave an impetus to local banking business. In fact, 
there came to be a mania for banks. Men stood in line for 
hours, and even fought for an opportunity to buy bank stock. 

[A great many banks, especially in the west, were nothing but 
swindles, being started without any real capital, and operating through 
deception. They are often called “ wildcat ” banks.] 

503. A change in affairs was bound to come, for the 
country could not long afford to import food supplies. It 
began in 1836, when an order known as the Specie Circular 
was issued from the Treasury Department to the land offices 
to accept nothing but coin in payment for land. This order 
was intended to stop the “wildcat” banks from cheating 
the government with worthless notes. It created a demand 
for coin. Holders of bank notes began to demand cash of 
the banks, and the banks had very little cash in reserve. 
To get cash, real estate was offered at reduced prices. Then 
owners, heavily in debt, became frightened and wanted to 
sell, but could not find purchasers. Soon there was a rush 
on the banks to collect notes, and banks all over the coun¬ 
try had to close their doors. Honest banks were swept 
down as well as the dishonest. 


SPECULATION AND PANIC. 


261 


504. A Panic is the name given to such a state of affairs 
as this. The panic of 1837 began with Van Buren’s term, 
and lasted for more than a year, until business based on 
regular work and honest wages slowly made a new begin¬ 
ning. During this year there was widespread distress, 
sometimes even a lack of food. 

505. The United States Government, also, was troubled 
by want of money, for its funds were in the keeping of 
banks which could not return them. In 1835 the national 
debt had been entirely paid off, and the government, having 
more money than it needed for expenses, had distributed 
its surplus among the states. In 1837, an extra session of 
Congress, called to consider the financial difficulties, issued 
treasury notes (similar to greenbacks) (655) to meet the 
current expenses. The chief result of the panic, so far as 
the government was concerned, was a United States treas¬ 
ury system, independent of all banks. 

506. [Our Sub-Treasury System went into operation in 1840. It 
provides for the safe keeping of government money in the national 
treasury at Washington, in sub-treasuries at prominent cities, or in 
charge of depository banks. It was abolished by the Whigs, in 1841 
(514), who tried to reestablish the Bank of United States. In 1846 the 
independent treasury system was renewed.] 

507. State Debts.—In the general spirit of speculation, 
many states had become involved in heavy debts for canals, 
railroads, etc. They, also, were hard pushed for money. 
No one can sue a state for the collection of a debt (Art. XI., 
Amendments to the Constitution), and some states that 
were heavily embarrassed voted not to pay. .This refusal 
of a state to pay its debts is called repudiation. Some of 
the repudiating states afterwards paid off their debts. 

508. Abolitionists and Slavery Riots.—The people of 
the North had generally accepted the theory of their states¬ 
men (459), that slavery in the South was no affair of theirs. 
It might be a terrible sin, but the slave owners alone were 


262 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


responsible. The anti-slavery publications (492) alarmed 
and enraged the South, while at the North the Abolition¬ 
ists were denounced as incendiaries and the destroyers of 
the public peace. Southern governors would have punished 
them, if they could, while at their public meetings north¬ 
ern mobs rotten-egged and stoned them. Anti-slavery print¬ 
ing presses were destroyed and buildings were burned, yet 
the movement made headway. The numbers of the Aboli¬ 
tionists increased enough to secure protection against mobs, 
but they never gained any important political strength. 

[William Lloyd Garrison, the first of anti-slayery agitators, began the 
printing of the “Liberator” newspaper, in Boston, January 1, 1831. 
Wendell Phillips, a Massachusetts orator, and James G. Birney, of 
Michigan, a former slave owner, were Abolitionist leaders. Another 
leader, Elijah P. Lovejoy, a clergyman and an editor, was killed by a 
mob at Alton, Illinois, in 1837. John G. Whittier, the poet, was con¬ 
nected with the movement.] 

509. Anti-Slavery Petitions.—More than by the utter¬ 
ances of the Abolitionists, the North was aroused by the 
refusal of Congress to receive petitions touching slavery. 
This rule was adopted by Congress in 1836, and soon other 
rules were passed which cut off all debate on slavery ques¬ 
tions. These “gag” rules angered people at the North, who, 
led by John Quincy Adams in the House of Representa¬ 
tives (468), opposed them with unalterable resolution. Af¬ 
ter a struggle of four years these rules were given up, and 
petitions were admitted. 

[Postmasters were allowed to search United States mails and to cast 
out anti-slavery pamphlets or papers “ tending to promote discontent, 
sedition, and servile war.” Slave-holders lived in fear of a slave insur¬ 
rection, and their fear led to bitter feeling against the Abolitionists.] 

510. The Mormons, or Latter-Day Saints, are a religious 
sect, founded in New York state in 1830. They made 
trouble in Missouri and Illinois during this administration, 
and afterwards moved to Utah. 


509. Read Article I., Amendments to the Constitution of the United States. 



SPECULATION AND PANIC. 


263 


9 

[The founder of the sect was Joseph Smith, who pretended to preach 
a new gospel. He published his “revelation” as the “Book of Mor¬ 
mon,” which he induced a small number of fanatics to accept as a new 
Bible. The sect located first in Ohio, in 1831, and next at Independence, 
Missouri, where their religious law brought them into conflict with the 
civil authorities. In consequence of this they moved, in 1838, to Illi¬ 
nois, where the legislature gave them a charter for a city, Nauvoo. 
Here Smith set the example of polygamous marriages and polygamy 
became the practice of the leaders, though not adopted by the Mormon 
church as a part of their creed until later. This custom, and numerous 
depredations upon property, brought the Mormons into trouble with 
the authorities of Illinois. Joseph Smith was shot in a riot (1844). 
The Illinois legislature revoked the charter of Nauvoo in 1845. Brig¬ 
ham Young took Smith’s place at the head of the church, and under 
Young’s leadership most of the Mormons emigrated to the vicinity of 
Great Salt Lake, in Utah Territory (1847-8).] 

511. The presidential contest of 1840 was an exciting 
one. A Whig convention (December, 1839), nominated 
William Henry Harrison (513) of Ohio for President, and, 
to give the ticket strength in the South, John Tyler (515) 
of Virginia for Vice-President. Van Buren was the Demo¬ 
cratic nominee for reelection. The Whigs made a vigorous 
contest, charging upon Democratic administrations respon¬ 
sibility for the financial distress of preceding years, and 
stirring the enthusiasm of the people by large processions 
and mass meetings. They gained a sweeping victory. 

[Harrison was a frontier man and had lived in a log-cabin. There¬ 
fore log-cabins became the style. Whigs built them in every city, and 
kept hard cider on hand for visitors. There were log-cabin cuff-buttons 
and log-cabin cigars. Log-cabin songs were sung at the great meetings, 
with the chorus of “ Tippecanoe and Tyler, too.” Harrison was known 
as “ Old Tippecanoe,” in memory of his victory over the Indians (444). 
Harrison and Tyler had 234 electoral votes out of 294. The Abolition¬ 
ists voted for James G. Birney (508), but gained no electoral vote.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What were the causes of the panic of 1837? Would a panic be pos¬ 
sible if all business were done on cash ? What are some advantages of 
a “credit system?” Show how railroads make land more valuable. 
Why were northern people so enraged at the Abolitionists? Claiming 
their practices to be a part of their religion, what argument were Mor¬ 
mons able to make against prohibitory laws? (See Article I., Amend¬ 
ments to Constitution.) 


264 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


* 


CHAPTER XXVI. 

1841 - 1845 . 

“Tippecanoe and Tyler, too.” 


William Henry Harrison, Ohio, President 
John Tyler, Virginia , Vice-President and President 

CABINET. 


Daniel Webster, ) 
Hugh S. Legare, I 
Abel P. Upshur, | 
John C. Calhoun, J 
Thomas Ewing, 1 
Walter Forward, I 
John C. Spencer, | 
George M. Bibb, J 
John Bell, 1 
John C. Spencer, I 
James M. Porter, f 
William Wilkins, J 


State. 


Treasury. 


War. 


George E. Badger, 

Abel P. Upshur, 

David Henshaw, Navy. 

Thomas W. Gilmer, 

John Y. Mason, J 

Francis Granger, 1 Postmaster- 
Charles A. Wickliffe, J General. 

John J. Crittenden, 1 

Hugh S. Legare, [ Attorney-General. 

John Nelson, J 


For Explanation. —Extradition; rancorous. 


512. The election of Harrison was the popular approval 
of a warm-hearted, patriotic man, put up by a strong party, 
because he was known to the country by a military and not 
a political record. It brought to Washington a swarm of 
Whig politicians, hungry for the offices which Democrats 
had held for twelve years. Harrison, however, wanted able 
men in his cabinet, and Webster became his Secretary of 
State. The President issued a call for Congress to meet in 
extra session in May, but his death occurred a month after 
his inauguration. 

513. [William H. Harrison was born in Virginia, in 1773. He served 
as captain in the United States army, and removed to the west, in 1793. 
He was Governor of Indiana Territory (1801-13), commanding the 
western army in the war of 1812. He served in Congress as Represen¬ 
tative from Ohio (1816-19), and as Senator (1825-8), and was sent as 
Minister to Colombia (1828-9). He died after a few days illness, April 
6th, 1841.] 


What may be inferred about this administration from the number of 
cabinet officers in each department? 





TIPPECANOE AND TYLER, TOO .’ 


265 


514. Tyler and the Whigs.—Whig Congressmen ex¬ 
pected President Tyler to cooperate with them in reestab¬ 
lishing a United States Bank, and in strengthening protect¬ 
ive tariffs. But Tyler was more Democrat than Whig, and 
had acted with the Whigs in his own state simply from 
personal opposition to President Jackson. He used the veto 
power against the Whig measures, and the Whigs were not 
strong enough in Congress to overrule him. Bitter animos¬ 
ity was created between W r hig leaders and the President. 
This ill-will broke up the cabinet, which Tyler had ac¬ 
cepted from Harrison, and subsequent quarrels weakened 
the Whig organization. 

515. [John Tyler was born in Virginia, in 1790. He was a graduate 
of William and Mary College, a lawyer, a member of the Virginia legis¬ 
lature (1811-16), Representative in Congress (1816-21). Having left Con¬ 
gress on account of ill-health, he was again in the legislature of his 
state (1828-4), Governor of Virginia (1825-6), and United States Senator 
(1827-36), resigning, rather than obey instructions from his state, in 
favor of President Jackson. A third time he served in the Virginia 
legislature, acting with the Whigs. He died at Richmond, Virginia, in 
1862.] 

516. Webster-Ashburton Treaty.—Contrary to the wish 
of many Whigs, Webster refused to desert the cabinet of 
President Tyler until after important public business had 
been arranged. The boundary between Maine and Canada 
was in dispute (340). Serious difficulties had arisen out of 
a rebellion in Canada (1837), in which Americans were dis¬ 
posed to give help against Great Britain. In 1842 Webster 
arranged with Lord Ashburton, the British representative, a 
treaty which fixed our northern boundary from the Atlantic 
to the Rocky Mountains, as it now is. 

[This treaty also provided for the extradition of criminals, each 
country agreeing to arrest and send back criminals who had escaped 
from the other.] 

517. Texas was a Mexican state, from the formation of 
the Mexican republic (464) until 1835. A vast territory, 
one third as large as the original thirteen states together, 


266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

with only a small population, Texas offered a favorable 
field for settlers, and many Americans from the southern 
states had gone into Texas. There they helped organize 
a revolt against Mexico. Mexican troops were driven out, 
and in 1835 an independent government was set up. The 
admission of Texas to our Union now became a question of 
great public interest, upon which our people were divided. 
President Tyler favored the annexation of Texas, and in 
1844 arranged a treaty for that purpose, which the Senate 
rejected. The annexation of Texas then became the great 
issue in the presidential contest of 1844. 

[If admitted, Texas would come in as a slave state. The question of 
annexation involved, therefore, the extension of the slave system, the 
center of most of the great political contests until I860.] 

518. Oregon, the name applying indefinitely to the 
country drained by the Columbia River (sometimes called 
the Oregon), began to attract settlers in 1840. Both the 
United States and Great Britain claimed ownership. Web¬ 
ster, as Secretary of State, tried to fix the boundary at the 
forty-ninth parallel, but neither country was willing to ac¬ 
cept it. Our extreme demand was for the line of 54° 40', 
nearly the southern end of Alaska. England’s claim 
reached nearly to California. The maintenance of our 
claims to the Oregon region was also a leading issue in the 
campaign of 1844. 

519. The nominees in 1844 for President and Vice- 
President were, by the Whigs, Henry Clay of Kentucky, 
and Theodore Frelinghuysen of New Jersey; by the Dem¬ 
ocrats, James K. Polk (527) of Tennessee, and George M. 
Dallas of Pennsylvania. Van Buren had been a candi¬ 
date for the Democratic nomination, but failed to get the 
two-thirds vote required for a choice in the Democratic con¬ 
vention. Polk stood for “the reoccupation of Oregon and 
the reannexation of Texas,” on the theory that we had dis¬ 
covered and owned Oregon as far as 54° 40', and had ac- 


TIPPECANOE AND TYLER , TOO: 


267 


quired Texas in the Louisiana purchase (417). Clay stood 
for the American System (474) and United States Bank. 
Polk and Dallas were elected. 

520. [Two letters decided the contest. Clay wrote that he would be 
glad to see Texas annexed, “ without dishonor, without war, with the 
common consent of the Union, and upon just and fair terms,” and he 
lost the votes of men strongly opposed to the extension of slavery. 
Polk, although a believer in free trade, wrote that it was the duty of the 
government to extend, “ by its revenue laws, and all other means within 
its power, fair and equal protection to all the great interests of the 
whole Union.” He won several protectionist states, without losing the 
states opposed to protective tariffs.] 

521. [Clay’s Defeat.—The Abolitionists voted again for James G. 

Birney (511). They were credited with defeating Clay, by “ throwing 
away ” their votes on Birnej r . The electoral vote was: Clay, 105; Polk, 
170. New York went for Polk by a very small majority. Her thirty-six 
electoral votes would have elected Clay. Jackson lived to see this final 
defeat of his great adversary. “For twenty years these two great, 
brave men headed the opposing political forces of the Union. Whoever 
might be candidates, they.were the actual leaders. John Quincy Adams 
was more learned than either; Mr. Webster was stronger in logic and 
in speech; Calhoun more acute, refined, and philosophic; Van Buren 
better skilled in combining and directing political fortes; but to no one 
of these was given the sublime attribute of leadership, the faculty of 
drawing men unto him. . . . Clay held the advantage of rare elo¬ 

quence ; but Jackson had a splendid military record, which spoke to the 
hearts of the people more effectively than words. ... In each of 
them patriotism was a passion. There never was a time in their pro¬ 
longed enmity and rancorous contests when a real danger to the coun¬ 
try would not have united them as heartily as in 1812, when Clay in the 
House and Jackson on the field cooperated in defending the national 
honor against the aggressions of Great Britain.”— Blaine.'] 

522. Texas Annexed. —Polk’s victory was considered the 
people’s verdict in favor of annexing Texas. President Ty¬ 
ler, desiring to finish what he had begun, by means of a 
joint resolution from both houses of Congress, received 
authority to proceed. This resolution was forwarded to 
Texas, and the terms of annexation accepted by her gov- 

521. How many times had Clay been a regular candidate for President? 
In what years? 




268 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



eminent. She was admitted to the Union at the next ses¬ 
sion of Congress (December, 1845). 


1. Whitney. 2. Fulton. 3. Ericsson. 4. Morse. 

[Calhoun, Tyler’s last Secretary of State, said that the admission of 














“ TIPPECANOE AND TYLER , TOO.' 


269 


Texas was “ to uphold the interests of slavery, extend its influence, and 
secure its permanent duration.” A broader view, leaving slavery out 
of consideration, would say that the admission of Texas was wise; for, 
not strong enough to remain independent, she would probably have 
formed European alliances dangerous to our interests.] 

523. The States in 1845.—Arkansas became a state in 1836, Michi¬ 
gan in 1837. Florida and Iowa were admitted to the Union, March 3d, 
1845. Iowa had trouble about her constitution, and did not get under 
way as a state until 1846. Counting Iowa, however, there were twenty- 
eight states the day on which Polk was inaugurated. Of the original 
thirteen, the seven north of Maryland had prohibited slavery, while 
the other six maintained it. Of the fifteen younger states, seven were 
free states, while in the eight south of Iowa and the Ohio River, slavery 
was legal. Thus free and slave states were equally represented in the 
United States Senate. Texas gave the majority to the slave states for 
a time. She was, however, the last state admitted with a constitution 
legalizing slavery. Wisconsin, a free state, was admitted to the Union 
in 1848.] 

524. Telegraph.—The years 1840-4 brought about things 
more wonderful than political leadership, and greater in re¬ 
sults to us and all the world than the annexation of Texas. 

In 1837, Samuel F. 
B. Morse, artist and 
inventor, a professor 
in the University 
of New York, asked 
for a patent on an 
invention for em¬ 
ploying electricity 
in sending mes¬ 
sages between dis¬ 
tant places. In 
1845 Congress ap¬ 
propriated money 
for testing the in¬ 
vention, and the 
next year the first successful telegraph line in the world 
was in operation between Washington and Baltimore. In 







270 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


a few years, telegraph wires connected all the larger cities 
in the Union. 

[The Morse system was adopted in Europe, and has been improved 
both in Europe and America. Morse received the highest honors from 
European powers, and gratitude and praise at home. For a long time 
electricity had been known as a force, fit to be applied to certain uses. 
The discoveries since 1840 have shown how to make these practical 
applications. The introduction of the telegraph facilitated and ex¬ 
tended the work of newspapers. Improved presses were needed to 
supply the growing circulation of the great dailies. In 1846 was pat¬ 
ented a cylinder printing press, in which the type placed on one cylin¬ 
der imprints the paper revolving upon another cylinder Improved 
cylinder presses do the rapid newspaper printing of the present time.] 



Modern Book Press. 
(Used in printing this book.) 


525. The country, at peace with foreign nations during 
Tyler’s term, had some disturbances at home. In Rhode 
Island, in 1842, there was an attempt by force to overthrow 
the state constitution, which had been handed down from 
the days of Roger Williams, and allowed only freeholders 
and their oldest sons to vote (74). The uprising is known 
as the “ Dorr Rebellion,” from the name of the leader. No 
blood was shed, and a new constitution removed the griev¬ 
ances. There was trouble also in New York over the land 














TIPPECANOE AND TYLER , TOO.' 


271 


system of the Dutch patroons (141), which still existed 
along the Hudson. Farmers paid rent to the landlords, and 
were allowed no opportunity to buy for themselves. About 
1844, many farmers refused, to pay anymore rent, and, as 
“Anti-renters,” resisted the law officers. In the end the 
great land estates were broken up and sold. Thus far the 
mineral wealth of our land had received very little atten¬ 
tion. The high lands of Virginia, North Carolina, and 
Georgia had furnished a little gold. Steam engines were 
bringing Pennsylvania coal and iron into use. New Jersey 
mines of iron ore were still older. Lead was found in 
northern Illinois and eastern Iowa, in the mineral, galena. 
The settlement of Michigan revealed the wealth of native 
cojiper on the shores of Lake Superior, and copper became 
one of our important exports. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the advantage of a military over a political record for a 
presidential candidate ? What grounds did Whigs have for resentment 
against President Tyler? What defense may be made for him ? From 
the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains what natural boundaries separate 
us from the British possessions ? Do persons accused of crime some¬ 
times escape from the United States to Mexico or Canada? Do they 
find there security from arrest ? Why ? Texas retained the ownership 
of all her unoccupied land—what advantage has this been to her over 
other states ? What were the grounds of our claim to Oregon ? (See 
Territorial Map of 1876.) What did Jackson do for his country in the 
war of 1812? What was Clay’s part? How did the territory of free 
states compare in extent with that of slave states in 1845 ? See if you 
can find out how the electric telegraph works. How is telegraphing 
across the Atlantic Ocean accomplished? Learn what you can about 
the construction of ocean cables. Has the telephone any advantage 
over the telegraph ? Has the telegraph any advantage over the tele¬ 
phone ? Make a list of all the applications of electricity that you know 
anything about. Make a list of the metals mined extensively in the 
United States, with the important localities. What metals are mined 
in California ? 


272 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXVII. 

1845 - 1849 . 

Texas and Mexico. 


James Knox Polk, Tennessee , President. 

George M. Dallas, Pennsylvania , Vice-President. 
cabinet. 


James Buchanan—State. 

Robert J. Walker—Treasury. 

William L. Marcy—War. 

John Y. Mason, 
Nathan Clifford, 
Isaac Toucey, 


George Bancroft, ) 

John Y. Mason, j Navy ‘ 

Cave Johnson—Postmaster-General. 

Attorney-General. 


For Explanation.—Ranking; armistice; provisional. 

To be Pronounced Before Reading the Chapter.—Nu-e'ce§; R'i'o 
Grange; Re-sa/ca de la Pakma; Ve'ra Cruz (kroos); Bue'(bo)na Vis'ta; 
Puebla (pweMa); Con-tre'ras; Mo-l'Pno del Rey' (ra); Cha-pubta-pec; 
Chi-hua'hua (che-wa/wa); Gua(gau)da-lupe / H'i-dakgo; ChaPco. 

526. West of Texas (517) the almost uninhabited lands 
of Mexico stretched away to the Pacific. In 1845 no one 
realized the extent and fertility of the great Northwest, but 
the Southwest was an inviting field in which to extend our 
ownership. President Polk continued the policy of pushing 
out our lines in that direction. 

527. [James K. Polk was born in North Carolina, in 1795, of Irish 
lineage. His family moved to Tennessee in 1806. Having graduated 
from the University of North Carolina, Polk became a lawyer. He was 
in the Tennessee legislature (1823-5), a Representative in Congress 
(1825-39)—twice elected Speaker,—and Governor of Tennessee (1839-43). 
He was always an efficient supporter of Jackson. He died in 1849.] 

Map Questions.—What territory did Spain lose by the independence 
of Mexico? What territory did Mexico lose by the independence of 
Texas ? By the war with the United States ? Bound Mexico as left by 
the war. Name the harbors of Mexico. The chief cities. How many 
routes to the City of Mexico presented themselves to American armies ? 
Were they all used? Why was it easy for the United States to gain 
possession of Arizona and California? Has California any natural 
connection with Mexico? Without railroads, which is the easier land 
journey—from Monterey to New Orleans, or from Monterey to the City 
of Mexico? Is California associated with Mexico by possessing the 
same climate and natural products ? 




TEXAS AND MEXICO 


273 



Mexican Boundary 


before 


Ft. Leavenworth 


.Bents Fort 


COLo^I 

s? X 


7XXdi« n F <>r* 


* '/fo ~5 ) - 

'■% • /=■ 

(Q KEARNXS 


lMexican/v Boundary after) War ^j\ 

i® id \% vA 


5 r >4 , v \c 

t!' 


^TTaylor Lands 
OiCorpus Christi 
* I Ft. Isabel 
J^/Palo Alto 
Vw May 8 
TTiFort Brown 
Matamoras 

| 

VICTORIA 

'N^J OF 
%.\ MEXICO 


QiS&m as 


Battle 


r ^u-Mtiag-o 

CHAPULTEPCC^ 
CHURUBOSCO <Q»o^ 


THE 


MEXICAN WAR 


4-00 




^•/k /VH\w 


JA4mo* 


Cernm Gordo April 18,1347 
^ jj La Antigua 
^^?vSan Juan de Ulloa 


51R ® y ^ c 0 »»M EX\1 CO 

gubayaOjC Jsep |l fc A u 


OBaltazar 


Nopaluca 


'Puebla 


° oCordovcx 


AlvarcmO 


18-H 


Map of Mexico 













274 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


528. The Oregon boundary (518) was settled by a treaty 
with Great Britain in 1846. The “ Fifty-four forty or fight ” 
doctrine (518) of the campaign was given up under the 
skillful management of James Buchanan, our Secretary of 
State, and the forty-ninth parallel was accepted by both 
nations as the line. 

[Afterwards, a dividing line through the Pacific inlets, in our north¬ 
west corner, gave rise to further dispute, which was settled in 1871 ( 677 ).] 

529. The boundary of Texas on the west was in dispute, 
also, when Texas was admitted. Mexico claimed the ter¬ 
ritory to the Nueces River, while Texas drew the line at the 
Rio Grande. Protection was given to the Texans by our 
troops under General Zachary Taylor, first as an “ army of 
observation ” before Texas was annexed, and afterwards as 
an “army of occupation” to guard the disputed territory 
between the Nueces and the Rio Grande. Taylor’s army 
of about 3,000 men was gathered at Corpus Christi early in 
1846. In March orders came from President Polk to ad¬ 
vance to the Rio Grande. A position on the Rio Grande, 
nearly opposite Matamoras, was reached and fortified, and 
received the name of Fort Brown (now Brownsville). 

The War with Mexico. 

530. The Mexicans ordered Taylor back to the Nueces, 
on the threat of war. Taylor paid no attention to the order, 
and went on with his fortifications. The Mexicans crossed 
the Rio Grande and captured two companies of dragoons, 
killing a few men. Here began the war with Mexico. 

531. The news of bloodshed aroused the nation. “ Our 
country has been invaded,” “American blood has been 
spilled on American soil,” were the cries. President Polk, 
without waiting for word from the Mexican government, 
called on Congress for prompt action. May 13th, 1846, 
Congress passed a formal declaration of war, the preamble 
stating that war existed “ by the act of the Republic of 


TEXAS AND MEXICO. 275 

Mexico.” Ten days later Mexico declared war against the 
United States. 

532. Battles of 1846.—Taylor was obliged to leave Fort 
Brown in charge of a small garrison, and to go with the 
body of his army to Point Isabel, to fetch supplies. During 
his absence Mexicans crossed from Matamoras in great 
numbers, and spread through the country between the fort 
and Taylor’s army. On his way back to the fort, Taylor 
encountered and fought the Mexicans at Palo Alto (May 
8th), and Resaca de la Palma (May 9th), driving them 
across the river. On receiving word of the declaration of 
war, Taylor transferred his army across the Rio Grande, and 
his “army of occupation” became an “army of invasion.” 
He waited at Matamoras till August, and then, somewhat 
reinforced, advanced upon Monterey. The Mexicans, after 
defending Monterey for three days, were overpowered, and 
it was surrendered (September 24th). At Monterey Taylor 
was joined by General John E. Wool, who had marched 
from San Antonio, Texas, with 3,000 men. 

533. Politics of the War.—The Democratic party com¬ 
menced and conducted the war with Mexico. There was 
strong opposition, especially from Whigs, who believed the 
purpose of the war to be the acquisition of territory for the 
slave system. President Polk asked Congress to place a 
sum of money in his hands for the payment of Mexican 
claims, in the event of an early peace. A bill for this pur¬ 
pose was under way in Congress when David Wilmot, a 
young representative from Pennsylvania, introduced an 
amendment which divided not only Congress but the 
whole country in fierce debate. 

534. The Wilmot Proviso, which was moved as an 
amendment to the bill appropriating money, declared it to 
be “ an express and fundamental condition to the acquisi¬ 
tion of any territory from Mexico, that neither slavery nor 



General Scott. 

[The proviso never became a law, but to prevent the spread of the 
slave system over any more of the “ free soil” of America became from 
year to year the inspiring purpose of a larger and larger number of men 
in the North. It was not Abolition; it was a command to halt. It was 
not attack, but defense. On the other hand, the South had grounds for 
fear in this new and surprising determination. The slave system was 
spurred on to seize a broader foundation for slavery, and to risk the 
Union in the attempt. The older leaders, who, loving the Union, had 
preserved it by compromise, were compelled to vote on the Wilmot Pro- 


276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


involuntary servitude shall exist therein.” The whole ques¬ 
tion of the extension of slavery, which had been laid on the 
table in 1820 (460), was now before the country. 


TEXAS AND MEXICO. 


277 


viso, and they did so with sorrow. Webster voted for it, but with the 
words: “ The future is full of difficulties and full of dangers. We ap¬ 
pear to be rushing on perils headlong, and with our eyes all open.”] 

535. The campaign of 1847 was put in charge of Gen¬ 
eral Winfield Scott (445), the ranking officer of the army. 
His plan was not to invade Mexico from the north (Taylor’s 
route), but to land at Vera Cruz and march at once upon 
the Mexican capital. After some hesitation the War De¬ 
partment adopted Scott’s plan, and dispatched him to Vera 
Cruz late in 1846, but with a smaller army than he had de¬ 
sired. Taylor’s army was weakened in order to strengthen 
Scott before Vera Cruz. General Santa Anna, at the head 
of the Mexican army, thought to crush Taylor’s smaller 
force, but was himself defeated in the hot battle of Buena 
Vista (February 23d). Scott captured Vera Cruz (March 
29th), defeated the Mexicans at Cerro Gordo (April 18th), 
and entered the city of Puebla (May 15th). In this ele¬ 
vated region there was no fear of fevers, which had made a 
delay on the coast dangerous to the army, and Scott waited 
until the arrival of more troops in August. 

536. Capture of Mexico.—The regular road to the capi¬ 
tal lay between Lakes Chaleo and Texcoco. As it was 
strongly fortified, the army found a new route around Lake 
Chaleo and came upon the city from the southwest. Bat¬ 
tles were fought at Contreras and Churubusco (August 
19th), and the Mexicans were forced back upon 'their city. 
There was now an armistice, in which Mr. N. P. Trist, our 
commissioner accompanying Scott’s army, vainly tried to 
induce General Santa Anna to accept peace and purchase 
money in return for New Mexico and California. Negotia¬ 
tions failing, fighting was resumed in the battles of Molino 
del Bey (September 8tli), and Chapultepec (September 
14th), strong positions from which the Mexicans were 
driven at heavy cost to us. The remaining defenses of 
the capital gave way, and Scott’s troops entered the city 


278 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


(September 14th), Santa Anna and the remains of his army- 
having fled. 

537. New Mexico and California. —Our authority was 
established in New Mexico by General S. W. Kearny, who, 
in 1847, marched from Fort Leavenworth with 1,800 men, 
and took possession of Santa Fe. Here he left Colonel 
Doniphan in command, and set out with a small party for 
California. Doniphan leaving a force to guard New Mex¬ 
ico, turned southward, and after two sharp battles near 
Chihuahua, he gained the city and the country around it. 
Doniphan then led his men into Texas. Before Kearny’s 
arrival in California, the flag of the United States had been 
raised there by Captain John C. Fremont, who was in Cal¬ 
ifornia with an exploring expedition at the outbreak of the 
war, and by Commodore Sloat, in command of our fleet on 
the Pacific. Thus, before Scott entered the city of Mexico, 
we were practically in possession of all the territory that we 
desired from Mexico. 

538. Peace. —After the flight of Santa Anna, who was 
President as well as military commander, there was some 
difficulty in finding any one with whom to conclude peace. 
In February, 1848, a provisional Mexican government 
agreed to terms satisfactory to the United States—the ces¬ 
sion of all territory from New Mexico to the Pacific, in re¬ 
turn for $15,000,000, to be paid directly to Mexico, and 
$3,000,000 more to American creditors of Mexico. The 
treaty also guaranteed to us free navigation of the Gulf of 
California. This treaty is known as the treaty of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo, the name of the Mexican village where it was ar¬ 
ranged. Our troops were now withdrawn from Mexico. 

539. Our War with Mexico was conducted chiefly by the two able 
generals, Taylor and Scott, and it gave honor and fame to each. Our 
ranks were filled mainly by volunteers, who showed themselves excel¬ 
lent soldiers. Our armies met no reverses, though generally greatly 
outnumbered. The Mexican troops, in the words of U. S. Grant (676), 
were “ poorly clothed, worse fed, and seldom paid.” “ With all this,” he 
continues, “ I have seen as brave stands made by some of these men 


War with Mexico, 1846-8. 


TEXAS AND MEXICO. 


279 


as I have ever seen made by soldiers.” The war with Mexico rounded 
out our territory into a broad belt from ocean to ocean. It also gave 
practical experience in tactics and engineering to the young officers 
trained at West Point, who afterwards became leaders on both sides in 
our civil war (591).] 


540. In the Presidential contest of 1848 the exclusion 
of the slave system from the territory acquired from Mex¬ 
ico was the decisive question. Polk’s negotiator (536) had 
refused Mexico an assurance that the ceded land should 
be kept free, and Polk was not renominated. His party 
nominated, for the presidency, Lewis Cass, a native of New 
Hampshire, and a citizen of Michigan. The Whigs nomi¬ 
nated the hero of the war, General Zachary Taylor, a na¬ 
tive of Virginia, and a citizen of Louisiana, an owner of 
slaves, yet a man who loved the Union, and would main¬ 
tain it firmly. Taylor was elected, with Millard Fillmore, 
of New York, as Vice-President. 

[The electoral vote stood 163 for Taylor, 127 for Cass. Some south¬ 
ern states voted for Taylor, and some northern states for Cass.] 

541. [Free Soil Party. —Neither Whigs nor Democrats were willing 
to adopt the principle of the Wilmot Proviso (534), and both parties 
lost- those men who desired some distinct assurance that the new soil 
should be forever free. These men joined in forming the “ Free Soil” 
party; in favor of “ Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” 
Their nominee was ex-President Van Buren. The Free Soilers received 
the support of the former Abolitionists, and polled considerable votes.] 

REVIEW. 


' Cause. 


Analysis of War with Mexico. 


Politics. 


J General Method. . 


f 1. Democratic management. 

\ 2. Wilmot Proviso divides the country. 

[3. Free Soil Party organized. 

rl. From Texas by. . . 

1. Invasion of Mexico. From the Gulf by . # 

2. Establishment of United States authority in 

New Mexico and California. 


Terms of Peace. 


, Results. . . . 






280 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXVIII. 

1849 - 1853 . 

El Dorado, the Land of Gold. 


Zachary Taylor, Louisiana, President. 

Millard Fillmore, New York, Vice-President and President. 


CABINET. 


John M. Clayton, \ 

Daniel Webster, V State. 
Edward Everett, j 

Wm. M. Meredith, 1 _ 

^ . > Treasury. 

Thomas Corwin, ) 

George W. Crawford, 1 

Charles M. Conrad, j ar ’ 


William B. Preston, 'J 
William A. Graham, Wavy. 
John P. Kennedy, j 


Thomas Ewing, 
Alex. H. H. Stuart, 
Reverdy Johnson, 
John J. Crittenden, 


| Interior. 
Attorney-General. 


Jacob Collamer, 
Nathan K. Hall, 
Samuel D. Hubbard, 


Postmaster-General. 


542. The election of Taylor in no way settled the ques¬ 
tion of excluding slavery from the new territory, and before 
the United States had even adopted, a plan for governing 
its new possessions, California had the population and the 
government of a state, and was demanding an equal voice 
in the management of the Union. All this wonderful prog¬ 
ress was made between Taylor’s election in 1848 and his 
death in 1850. 

543. [Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia, in 1784. His father, a 
revolutionary officer, moved to a plantation near Louisville, Kentucky. 
In 1808 young Taylor entered the army, rising to captain in 1810, and 
for brave service in the war of 1812, was promoted to major by brevet, 
and later to full major. He served in the Black Hawk War (498), and 
afterwards in Florida, rising successively to lieutenant-colonel, colonel, 
and brigadier-general by brevet, with which rank he took command of 
the Army of the Southwest in 1840 (529). At this time he bought a 
plantation near Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He died at Washington, July 
9, 1850.] 

544. California attracted the attention of America and 
of the world by the discovery of gold in the foothills of the 
Sierras in the spring of 1848. In the gold region of Cali- 




EL DORADO , THE LAND OF GOLD. 281 

fornia the yellow treasure could be found in the sand and 
gravel of every mountain stream. Through the remainder 
of 1848, stories of fabulous wealth crept eastward over the 
continent, so wonderful as hardly to be believed. The 


General Zachary Taylor. 

next year found thousands of people pushing westward, 
to dig gold in California. From the Atlantic shores they 
hurried to embark in sailing craft around Cape Horn; 
and from the “western” states they drove their emigrant 
wagons across plains, deserts, and mountains. Every 
danger by sea or land was braved for a chance to share the 
new found treasure. Every man’s dream was to take his 
fortune from the “diggings” and return to enjoy his wealth 
in his early home. Few there were to find a fortune and 



282 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


return; the many stayed to build new homes and complete 
the foundation of a state. 

[California never had a territorial government. United States mili¬ 
tary authority was represented by General Bennet Riley; but the people 
had come and had formed a political organization of their own before 
the civil arm of the government at Washington could be extended for 
their protection. At the call of General Riley, they elected delegates, 
who met at Monterey September 1st, 1849, and framed a constitution. 
This constitution was adopted by the people, officers under it elected, 
a state government inaugurated, and two men elected and dispatched 
to Washington to demand the admission of California as a state and 
to be Senators in Congress. All this was done before the end of 1849.] 

545. Question of Admission.—The constitution of Cali¬ 
fornia prohibited slavery, and the question of admission 
called up all the enmities which had threatened to divide 
the Union over the admission of Missouri (459). Now, the 
question concerned the admission of a free state, instead of 
a slave state as in 1820. Thirty years, however, had only 
intensified the bitterness of the struggle. President Taylor 
recommended the admission of California with her consti¬ 
tution. His death, while the question was still pending, 
increased the difficulties of the situation, for the whole 
country, both North and South, trusted him. Vice-Presi¬ 
dent Fillmore, who now became President, favored compro¬ 
mise measures, which were introduced, as in 1820 (460), 
under the leadership of Clay. Upon the basis of compro¬ 
mise, the question of admission was at last settled. 

546. [Millard Fillmore was born in New York, in 1800. With only 
a limited education, and an apprenticeship as a fuller, he began the 
study of law. Being poor his study was done under great difficulties. 
He, however, succeeded in fitting himself, and began practice in 1823 in 
Erie county. He was a member of the New York legislature (1828-31), 
Representative in Congress (1833-5 and 1837-1843), an unsuccessful can¬ 
didate for governor (1844), state comptroller (1847-9), and then Vice- 
President and President. He was the unsuccessful nominee of the 
American party (569) in 1856. He passed the rest of his life in retire¬ 
ment at Buffalo, New York, where he died in 1874.] 

547. The Omnibus Bill is the name given to Clay’s com¬ 
promise, because it carried so many regulations. Its main 


EL DORADO , THE LAND OF GOLD. 


283 


provisions were: 1. The admission of California as a free 
state and with her present boundaries. 2. The organiza¬ 
tion of the rest of the Mexican cession into territories, Utah 
(including Nevada) and New Mexico (including Arizona), 
with nothing said as to slavery, and Texas getting $10,000,- 
000 to' relinquish her claims on New Mexico. 3. The con¬ 
tinuance of slavery in the District of Columbia (492). 4. 

The passage of a new Fugitive Slave Law. 

548. The compromise of 1850 was effected by the pas¬ 
sage of the essential features of Clay’s bill as separate 
measures, the bill not passing as a whole. California was 
admitted as a state September 9th, 1850. The Fugitive 
Slave Law, passed about the same time, provided for the 
arrest and return of runaway slaves through the courts of 
the United States. 

549 . [Fugitive Slave Law.—Since the beginning of the anti-slavery 
movement ( 492 ), slave owners, especially along the border line, had lost 
heavily by the escape of slaves. There were people in the free states 
to shelter and aid them, and if they could reach Canada they were 
beyond pursuit. There came to be a secret system of stations for con¬ 
cealment through the free states to Canada, which was known as the 
“ underground railroad.” The provisions of this fugitive slave law were 
terribly exasperating to the people of the North. Any negro might be 
arrested, and, on the testimony of two persons, declared a runaway, his 
own statements counting for nothing. Any person concealing a slave, 
or assisting his escape, might be fined and imprisoned, and must pay 
$1,000 to the owner, if the slave got away. Daniel Webster, in review¬ 
ing the provisions of the Omnibus Bill, on March 7th, 1850, defended 
the fugitive slave law, and attacked the Abolitionists. This speech 
became historic, as Webster’s “ Seventh of March Speech.” It was a 
bitter blow to many of his life-long friends in the North.] 

550. Change of Leaders.—Again it was hoped that the 
agitation of slavery questions was laid to rest. The year 
1850, however, marks a significant change of leaders in 
national affairs. Clay and Webster had fought neither for 
slavery nor against it, but always for the Union. Calhoun 
had fought for slavery, had prophesied disunion, but sought 
to guard against it (485). The generation of these men 


284 


HISTORY OF T1IE UNITED STATES. 



was gone. A younger generation was pressing on, marshal¬ 
ing itself gradually into two columns. At the head of one 


i. Foote. 2. Stephens. 3 . Toombs, 

were Jefferson Davis and Henry S. Foote of Mississippi, 














EL DORADO , THE LAND OF GOLD. 


285 


Howell Cobb, Robert Toombs, and Alexander H. Stephens 
of Georgia, and others, who would extend the slave system 
over the territories, or would, most of them, separate the 
slave states from the Union on the plea of state sovereignty. 
Leading the other were men like Charles Sumner of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, William H. Seward of New York, and Salmon 
P. Chase of Ohio, who would admit no further advance of 
slavery upon free soil, and would, if need be, defend the 
Union by force of arms. 

551. The country was prosperous in 1850. We were no 
longer a feeble people, living on the verge of a wilderness. 
We had conquered the wilderness, and become a great na¬ 
tion, reaching from sea to sea. To strengthen and more 
closely unite the country, men were beginning to think of 
a continental railway. In Europe there was peace, and the 
nations of the earth gathered to display and compare the 
products of their industry in the World’s Fair at London, 
in 1851, the first of its kind. Hopeful men prophesied that 
war would be no more, .and that nations, looking to the com¬ 
mon interests of humanity, would agree to inhabit the earth 
in peace. Governments should be for the correction of evils, 
and not the instruments of pride and ambition. 

552. [The Maine Law.—In 1851 Maine passed what is known as 
the Maine Liquor Law. It prohibits the making or selling of alcoholic 
liquors within the state, except for medical purposes.] 

553. In the Presidential Campaign of 1852, both Whigs 
and Democrats tried to convince the country that the com¬ 
promise of 1850 was a final settlement. The Democratic 
platform declaring that u the Democratic party will resist 
all attempts at renewing in Congress or out of it the agita¬ 
tion of the slavery question, under whatever shape or color 
the attempt may be made,” was entirely pleasing to the 
South. The Whig convention declared that the party ac¬ 
quiesced in the compromise measures “ as a settlement in 
principle and in substance of the dangerous and exciting 


286 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


questions which they embrace.” The Whig leaders were 
in a false position. They could neither gain the confidence 







kill 

r 

■iXl 


\ , ,V\ 




MM 

lll lllllli 

iilBllSll 


iv « 

■al 




§8 ,.\\\ 






1. Sumner. 2. Seward. 3. Chase. 

of the South, nor convince the North that an honest and 















EL DORADO , THE LAND OF GOLD. 


287 


God-fearing man should accept the fugitive slave law as 
just, and obey it as a permanent regulation. Franklin 
Pierce, of New Hampshire, the Democratic nominee, was 
completely victorious over General Winfield Scott, a native 
of Virginia, the nominee of the Whigs. 

[Pierce received 254 electoral votes to forty-two for Scott. The Whig 
party never organized for another election. Daniel Webster had been 
a candidate before the Whig convention for the presidency, but he had 
no support outside of Massachusetts. Clay, from his death bed, sent 
his last advice to his friends to oppose Webster. Webster himself died 
just before election day revealed the defeat and death of the Whig 
party, a party of which he and Clay more than any other men had been 
the founders and defenders.] 

554. [The Free Soilers nominated John P. Hale of New Hampshire, 
but gained no electoral vote. In 1848 the Free Soil vote, considerably 
increased by dissensions among the Democrats, was 291,203. In 1852 it 
was only 156,149 out of a total vote of over three millions. This vote 
may be taken to represent the number of men in the free states at this 
time who were disposed to make the fight against slavery a national 
issue.] 

QUESTIONS. 

Review the terms of the Missouri Compromise, and see if you find 
therein anything preventing the admission of California as a free state. 
What was the cause of opposition to the admission of Missouri? 
What was the cause of opposition in the case of California? Counting 
thirty-three years as a generation, when did the first generation after 
the constitution (1787) end? The second generation? What were the 
ideas of leaders of the first generation, as Jefferson, repecting slavery? 
What were the ideas of leaders of the second generation, as Webster 
and Calhoun? Name early leaders of the third generation, and com¬ 
pare their ideas on the same subject. Who was sovereign of Great 
Britain in 1851? (43). Make a list of the great wars that have occurred 
in Europe and America since 1851. Account for the death of the Whig 
party. Find out how many states now have laws similar to the Maine 
Law. 


288 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXIX. 


1853 - 1857 . 

The Struggle for Kansas, and a New Party. 


Franklin Pierce, New Hampshire, President. 

Wm. P. King, Alabama , Vice-President (died in office). 


CABINET. 


William L. Marcy—State. 
James Guthrie—Treasury. 
Jefferson Davis—War. 


James C. Dobbin—Navy. 

Robert McClelland—Interior. 
Caleb Cushing—Attorney-General. 


James Campbell—Postmaster-General. 


To be Pronounced. —Bowdoin (bo'den); Koszta (koz'ta). 

555. The administration of President Pierce began with 
the country quiet and prosperous. Before its close there 
was civil strife on the plains of Kansas, which divided the 
whole country in angry cohflict. 

556. [Franklin Pierce was born in New Hampshire in 1804. He 
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1824, a classmate of Nathaniel Haw¬ 
thorne (497), and became a lawyer. He was an ardent Jackson man. 
After serving in the New Hampshire legislature, he was elected to the 
House of Representatives in 1833, and to the United States Senate in 
1837. In 1842 he resigned and returned to his profession. In the Mex¬ 
ican war he served as a colonel of volunteers and was promoted to 
brigadier-general. His nomination for the presidency was the result of 
a coalition. A two-thirds vote was required by rule of the convention. 
The prominent candidates were Lewis Cass, James Buchanan, Stephen 
A. Douglas, and William L. Marcy. After two days’ balloting there was 
still no choice. On the third day Pierce’s name was presented, and on 
the forty-ninth ballot he received a unanimous vote. During the civil 
war (591) he expressed sympathy with the Confederates. He died in 
1868.] 

557. The questions of slavery were reopened with greater 
fierceness than ever before, within one month after Pierce’s 
first message to Congress. A bill w r as before the Senate to 
establish a territory of Nebraska. Stephen A. Douglas, a 
young and brilliant Democratic Senator from Illinois, and 
chairman of the committee on territories, reported certain 
amendments declaring that the compromise of 1850 (548) 




THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS, AND A NEW PARTY. 289 


had repealed the Missouri compromise (460). This decla¬ 
ration was defended u upon the great principle of self- 
government, that the people should be allowed to decide 
the questions of their domestic institutions for themselves.” 
The proposed repeal was a surprise to the whole country, 
for the Missouri compromise had stood unchallenged for 
thirty-three years and no one had thought of its being 
touched in any way in 1850. 

[Senator Dixon of Kentucky, Clay’s successor, proposed to make a 
straightforward case of the Nebraska bill by an amendment, that “the 
Missouri compromise be repealed, and that the citizens of the several 
states be at liberty to take and hold their slaves within any of the ter¬ 
ritories.” This amendment represented the common desire of pro¬ 
slavery leaders. The question, however, was not fought out on this 
plain ground. The southern leaders were content that Douglas should 
accomplish the admission of slavery into the territory north of 36° 30\ 
putting it on any ground that suited him.] 

558. The Kansas-Nebraska Act is the name given to the 
act of Congress, which was finally voted upon and passed 
in May, 1854. It established territorial governments for 
Kansas and Nebraska, and declared that all laws of the 
United States should be in force in those territories, except 
the section of the Missouri compromise act prohibiting 
slavery north of 36° 30'. This section was declared to have 
been superseded by the compromise of 1850, and therefore 
was “ inoperative and void.” For each territory the act 
provided for a governor, secretary, and judges to be ap¬ 
pointed by the President and Senate, and a territorial leg¬ 
islature to be elected by actual residents. 

[In 1848 an attempt to extend the line of 36° 30', through the Mexican 
cession to the Pacific, had failed. At that time, Douglas argued, the 
Missouri compromise was virtually abandoned. Then, in 1850, Califor¬ 
nia was admitted with the free constitution formed by her people. 
This he claimed as a recognition that the United States had no power 
over slavery in the territories, and an acceptance of the principle of 
“popular sovereignty,” as he termed it, or'the right of people in a ter¬ 
ritory “ to regulate their domestic institutions in their own way.”] 

559. The repeal of the Missouri compromise was to the 

19-H 


290 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


country a dividing sword. Douglas claimed at the time 
that it legislated slavery neither into the territories nor out 
of them, but left the whole matter to the territorial legis¬ 
lature. Quickly, however, the South set up the claim that 
the constitution recognized slavery; that, therefore, slave 
owners were entitled to full protection of their property in 
the territories, and no power could prohibit slavery until a 
state government should be formed. By the repeal, the 
plains of Kansas, unoccupied save by Indian owners, were 
held out as a prize to free labor or slavery, to be won by the 
swiftest in the race. Many southern Whigs joined with 
Democrats in voting for the repeal. All who opposed the 
repeal and the attempted extension of the slave system 
were quickly gathered into a new party. 

560. [Thomas H. Benton, one of the ablest of the early Democrats, 
a constant supporter and admirer of Jackson, had entered the United 
States Senate on the admission of Missouri. For thirty years he was a 
Senator from Missouri, and for thirty years he had eloquently main¬ 
tained the principles of the Democratic party. But his party passed 
from him, and he was at last defeated for the Senate (1850). Elected, 
however, to the House, in opposition to all the younger members of his 
party, he denounced the Kansas-Nebraska bill. He declared that the 
Missouri compromise had been forced upon the North by the South, 
and now it was to be repealed, “ without a memorial, without a petition, 
and without a request from any human being.”] 

561. The Republican Party.—Few Congressmen from the 
North who had voted for the Kansas-Nebraska act were 
reelected. They were voted against by every man opposed 
to the extension of the slave system, whether he had called 
himself Democrat, Whig, or Free-Soiler. Thus began a 
new and vigorous party, confined to the free states and 
distinctly maintaining the right and the duty of Congress 
to keep slavery out of the territories. Under the name of 
“ Anti-Nebraska Men,” the new party, in the fall of 1854, 
elected a majority of the House of Representatives. The 
name Republican was adopted immediately after this elec¬ 
tion. 


THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS, AND A NEW PARTY. 291 


562. The struggle for Kansas was a trial of strength 
between North and South. Emigrant aid societies were in¬ 
corporated in free states to assist settlers in reaching Kan¬ 
sas. Secret political societies were formed in Missouri for 
the purpose of extending slavery into Kansas. The South 
had the advantage of nearness, Missouri being a slave state. 
The North had the advantage of a far greater number of 
persons free to move as emigrants and greater wealth to 
assist them. The efforts of the slave states, however, had 
the countenance of those who remained leaders in the 
Democratic party. Slave-owners having crossed into Kan¬ 
sas, held meetings and declared that slavery existed in 
Kansas and that free-state settlers should he ejected if they 
gave any annoyance. 

563. [Civil Strife in Kansas,— Andrew H. Reeder, the first gov¬ 
ernor appointed, arrived in Kansas in October, 1854. In November he 
called an election for a territorial delegate to Congress, and another in 
March, 1855, for a territorial legislature. On both occasions armed 
bands crossed over from Missouri, took possession of the polls, stuffed 
the boxes with illegal votes, and after voting returned to Missouri. At 
the second election there was fraudulent voting on the part of the free- 
state settlers also. Governor Reeder tried in vain to have justice done. 
He was soon removed, and several successors continued the useless 
attempt to keep peace between the free-state settlers and the slave-state 
visitors. By the middle of 1856 there were two territorial constitutions, 
and two legislatures were competing to make laws for Kansas. The 
pro-slavery legislature was organized first. It fixed its capital at Le- 
compton, adopted Missouri laws in a body, and made an oath to sup¬ 
port the Fugitive Slave Law a test for voters at all elections. The 
second legislature organized at Topeka under an anti-slavery constitu¬ 
tion, but it was broken up by the arrest and imprisonment of its offi¬ 
cers. There was now a civil war in Kansas, and the authority of the 
United States was only feebly exerted to keep the peace. Conflicts be¬ 
tween small bands of armed men were frequent, with loss of life and 
destruction of property.] 

564. Ruffianism, that ruled in Kansas, entered even the 
halls of Congress. Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was 
one of the boldest of the few Republican Senators. In a 
sneech upon Kansas affairs, delivered in the Senate in May, 


292 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


1856, Sumner criticised a Senator from South Carolina in 
bitter yet not unparliamentary terms. That Senator was 
not present, but his nephew, Preston S. Brooks, a Represen¬ 
tative of the same state, having read Sumner’s speech, re¬ 
solved on punishment. Two days after the speech, Brooks, 
finding Sumner at his seat, writing, the Senate having ad¬ 
journed, assaulted him, beating him over the head with a 
cane. Sumner was stunned by the blows, and was so seri¬ 
ously injured that several years passed before he recovered. 
This assault was regarded in the North as a hitter insult; 
in the South it was not condemned, and even received ap¬ 
plause. 

[The Republicans had a majority in the House, but could not get a 
two-thirds vote to expel Brooks. They, however, passed a vote of cen¬ 
sure, upon which Brooks resigned. Within three weeks he returned, 
having been immediately reelected. He challenged Senator Wilson, 
Sumner’s colleague, for words denouncing his assault. Wilson declined 
a duel. Anson Burlingame, a Massachusetts Representative, accepted 
a challenge from Brooks, and named a place in Canada for the tight. 
Brooks then excused himself, on the ground that a trip through the 
states would risk his life. Other assaults, growing out of the same dis¬ 
putes, occurred outside of Congress.] 

565. Cuba and Filibustering.—Cuba, as well as Kansas, 
invited conquest for slavery. In 1854 James Buchanan, our 
Minister to England, joined our Ministers to France and 
Spain, at Ostend, in Belgium, and the three issued a mani¬ 
festo, called the Ostend Circular. It declared that we should 
be justified in seizing Cuba, should its possession by Spain 
be decided dangerous to our peace. There were filibuster¬ 
ing expeditions against Cuba and other Spanish possessions, 
their object being to annex Cuba as a slave state. Attacks 
were made on Central America. These expeditions accom¬ 
plished nothing beyond bringing dishonor upon our coun¬ 
try. The leaders were frequently shot by Spanish authorities. 

[William A. Walker, the most noted of the filibusters, was shot in 
Central America, in I860.] 


THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS, AND A NEW PARTY. 293 


566. The country progressed and made great improve¬ 
ments, in spite of strife over slavery. In 1853 was held a 
second great World’s Fair, in the Crystal Palace, in New 
York City, a large building of iron and glass, built for the 
purpose. In the same year New York established a Clear¬ 
ing House, which keeps accounts and does business be¬ 
tween banks, just as banks do between persons. The rights 
of an American citizen were maintained before the world 
in the case of Martin Koszta, an escaped Austrian rebel, 
who had taken out his naturalization papers in the United 
States. He had afterwards gone to Asia Minor, where the 
Austrians arrested him; but one of our war vessels forced 
them to give him up as an American citizen. A beginning 
was made for commerce with Asia, when Commodore M. 
C. Perry, in 1854, forced his way into a Japanese harbor. 
He induced the Emperor of Japan to give up the policy of 
keeping his country shut out from the rest of the world, and 
gained his consent to commercial treaty with the United 
States. Railroad building went on rapidly, assisted by im¬ 
provements in bridges. 

[The rapid growth of the farming industry had led to important in¬ 
ventions in agricultural implements. In striking contrast to pounding 
the grain from the straw with flails and afterward winnowing it through 
an old-fashioned fanning mill, a thrashing machine was exhibited at 
the World’s Fair in 1853 that not only thrashed the grain, but winnowed, 
sacked, measured, and recorded the quantity, all in one operation. In 
the year 1855, at the World’s Fair in Paris, an American reaping ma¬ 
chine was awarded the first prize for the rapidity and quality of its work. 
Up to this date, also, no less than 372 patents had been issued for im¬ 
provements in plows.] 

567. [Gadsden Purchase.—The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (538) 
did not properly define the southern boundary of Arizona, and a dis¬ 
pute arose with the Mexican government over a strip of land lying 
south of the Gila River. This dispute was settled in 1853, by the pur¬ 
chase of the Mexican title, at a cost of $10,000,000. This is known as the 
Gadsden Purchase, James Gadsden, of South Carolina, having been our 
Minister to negotiate terms with Mexico.] 

568. The Presidential Election of 1856 showed the vigor 


294 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


of the Republican party. The Democrats desired a man 
who had not been concerned in the Kansas-Nebraska act, 
and found him in James Buchanan, who had been absent 



Old and New in Harvesting. 


in England during the strife over that measure. He was 
nominated for President. The Republicans nominated 
John C. Fremont of California, who had a favorable record 


















THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS, AND A NEW PARTY. 295 


as an explorer and military officer, and a private charac¬ 
ter which won friends. Of the thirty-one states Fremont 
carried eleven, Buchanan nineteen. Buchanan was elected. 
Fremont received 114 votes, all from free states; Buchanan, 
174. 


569. [American Party.—Some southern Whigs joined the Demo¬ 
crats. Others joined a newly formed American party, which offered 
standing ground for all not prepared to take sides either for or against 
slavery. It proposed to require twenty-one years for naturalization, 
and to prohibit citizens of foreign birth from holding office. It main¬ 
tained a secret organization, with initiations, passwords, etc., and from 
the secrecy of their proceedings the members were dubbed Know- 
Nothings. Their candidate for the presidency was ex-President Fill¬ 
more, also the nominee of remaining Whigs. He gained the eight votes 
of Maryland.] 

REVIEW. 


" Proposed for what purpose. 


Repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise. 


f By what means. 

Accomplished. { Underwhat i ea ders. 

Result to political parties. 

Result for the nation. 

„ Result in Kansas. 


QUESTIONS. 

Why might even persons who thought the Missouri compromise 
wrong in itself, oppose its repeal ? State the elements that made up 
the Republican party of 1856. What feelings between sections were 
shown at the time of the assault on Sumner? What spirit was shown 
in the expedition against Cuba? What kinds of bridges have you 
seen? What great bridges have you read about? State the benefits 
of World’s Fairs. What smaller expositions have you visited ? Bound 
Kansas. What slave state had to be crossed by northern settlers pass¬ 
ing directly to Kansas ? 




296 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXX. 

1857 - 1861 . 

From the Dred Scott Decision to Secession. 


James Buchanan, Pennsylvania , President. 

John C. Breckinridge, Kentucky , Vice-President. 


Lewis Cass, 
Jeremiah S. Black, 
Howell Cobb, 
Philip F. Thomas. 
John A. Dix, 

John B. Floyd, \ 
Joseph Holt, ) 


State. 


Treasury. 


War. 


CABINET. 

Isaac Toucey—Navy. 

Jacob Thompson—Interior. 

Jeremiah S. Black, 

Edwin M. Stanton, 

Aaron V. Brown,' 

Joseph Holt, y Postmaster-General. 
Horatio Kjng, 


;} 

}■ 


Attorney-General. 


570. The administration of President Buchanan began 
under auspices very different from those of his predecessor. 
In 1853 the great majority of the people tried to believe 
that the question of slavery extension had been laid aside. 
In 1857 the majority could see that the time of neutrality 
was over. Buchanan’s election had settled nothing, while 
the ballots cast for Fremont surprised Democrats every¬ 
where and alarmed the South. 

571. [James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania, in 1791. After 
graduating from college, he became a lawyer. He served in the war of 
1812, and was a Representative in Congress (1821-31), Minister to Russia 
(1832-4), United States Senator (18.34-45), Secretary of State (1845-0), 
and Minister to Great Britain (1853-6). After his presidency he retired 
to his home near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he died in 1868.] 

572. The Democratic Platform of 1856 had declared 
that the principles of our Constitution made “ours the 
land of liberty, and the asylum of the oppressed of every 
nation,” but it had avoided any decided stand with regard 
to the domestic institution of slavery. Democratic leaders 
were inclined to leave to the courts the question whether or 
not slavery should be protected in the territories up to the 
time of forming a state government. 


FROM THE DRED SCOTT DECISION TO SECESSION. 297 


573. The Dred Scott Case.—The United States Supreme 
Court undertook to settle once for all the question of slavery 
extension, which was beginning to threaten the Union. A 
Missouri slave known as Dred Scott had been taken by his 
master into what is now Minnesota, at the time a part of 
Wisconsin territory, and also a part of the Louisiana pur¬ 
chase, north of 36° 30'. After a return to Missouri Dred 
Scott brought suit for freedom, on the ground that his mas¬ 
ter had voluntarily taken him where slavery was positively 
prohibited. The suit came at last before the Supreme 
Court of the United States, by which it was decided that 
the Constitution of the United States regarded negroes 
merely as property, that they could not become citizens, 
and had no rights in a United States court, and that the 
Missouri compromise and any United States laws prohibit¬ 
ing slavery were unconstitutional. The decision was given 
through Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, March 6th, 1857. 

574. [The decision was regarded in the South as a victory, peace¬ 
ably awarding all that was desired for the extension of slavery. In the 
North it was regarded as a perversion of justice and a disgrace to our 
country’s history. Not less than the decision itself, its language, and 
the historical proofs cited for it, were exasperating to northern people. 
Chief Justice Taney, examining public opinion at the beginning of our 
government, claimed to find that negroes were then, in the prevailing 
opinion of the civilized world, regarded as an inferior race, with “ no 
rights which a white man was bound to respect.”] 

575. The Lecompton Constitution.—The Dred Scott de¬ 
cision encouraged the pro-slavery leaders to continue the 
struggle to gain Kansas as a slave state. A convention 
called by the Lecompton legislature (563), drafted at that 
place in November, 1857, a pro-slavery constitution. An 
election was held, not upon the whole constitution, but only 
on the slavery sections. Free state settlers refused to vote. 
Thousands of fraudulent votes were returned by non-citi¬ 
zens, and admission to the Union was demanded for Kansas 
as a slave state. President Buchanan gave his approval to 


298 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


the acts which had nominally made Kansas a slave state. 
The “ Leeompton Bill ” was introduced in Congress, to 
admit Kansas with the Leeompton constitution. It was 
passed in the Senate, but could not be carried in the House 
of Representatives. The whole constitution was then sub¬ 
mitted to the people, and it was defeated by an immense 
majority (January 4th, 1859). 

[Senator Douglas resisted the Leeompton constitution as a wholesale 
outrage upon citizens of Kansas. He firmly maintained his doctrine 
of “ popular sovereignty ’’—that the people of Kansas had the right to 
decide the question of slavery, but denied that the Leeompton consti¬ 
tution represented the will of Kansas citizens.] 

576. [Lincoln-Douglas Debate.—In 1858 Senator Douglas was the 
Democratic candidate for reelection before the Illinois legislature. 
Illinois Republicans nominated against him Abraham Lincoln, known 
to his neighbors as “ Honest Abe,” and in politics as an opponent of 
slavery, shrewd and ready in a stump speech, careful in his words, 
always absolutely truthful, and a master of humorous anecdote. Upon 
Lincoln’s challenge, the current political questions were discussed by 
Douglas and himself in a series of joint meetings. This memorable 
debate on subjects of intense interest, such as the Leeompton constitu¬ 
tion and the Dred Scott decision, fixed the attention of the whole coun¬ 
try on Lincoln and Douglas. Lincoln gained the popular support of 
Illinois, but Douglas held enough of the legislators to be reelected. 
Lincoln became a representative Republican, and his counsel and as¬ 
sistance as a political speaker were sought outside of his own state.] 

577. New States.—Kansas formed a new constitution 
through a convention at Wyandotte (July, 1859). The 
Wyandotte constitution prohibited slavery, and was law¬ 
fully adopted. Kansas, however, did not gain admission 
to the Union until January, 1861. Minnesota became a 
state in 1858, and Oregon in 1859. 

578. [John Brown, a native of Connecticut, a man of great bodily 
strength and unflinching courage, yet little wisdom, had fought against 
the pro-slavery bands in Kansas (563). He was a religious fanatic, and 
in the Kansas fights had formed the idea that he was divinely appointed 
to free the negroes from bondage. From some of the Abolitionists he 
obtained money. He then got together a number of reckless youth 
whom he trained for military service. His plan was to get free negroes 


FROM THE DRED SCOTT DECISION TO SECESSION. 299 

to join him, advance rapidly into the mountains of Virginia, arm slaves, 
maintain his ground in mountain strongholds, and gradually get the 
4,000,000 slaves of the southern states excited to armed and murderous 
conflict against their masters.] 

579. John Brown’s Raid.—On the night of October 19th, 

1859, with a few confederates, Brown attacked and captured 
the United States arsenal at Harper’s Ferry. He was 
quickly surrounded by Maryland and Virginia militia and 
ten of his men were killed. Brown and seven others, badly 
wounded, were captured. Brown was tried in a Virginia 
court, convicted of treason, conspiracy, and murder, and 
hanged. The sole effect of his crazy attempt was to in¬ 
flame the South with anger. 

580. Presidential Nominations, 1860.—The Democratic 
convention met at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, 

1860, to nominate a presidential candidate. Jefferson 
Davis (550) in the Senate had already endeavored to have 
passed a series of resolutions to serve as the new Demo¬ 
cratic platform. They declared that slaves were property, 
that neither Congress nor a territory had any right to inter¬ 
fere with this “ property,” and that it was the duty of Con¬ 
gress to protect it in case a territory failed to do so. These 
proposed additions to the platform of the Democratic party 
came before the Charleston convention. Northern Demo¬ 
crats, who recognized the leadership of Douglas, resisted 
their adoption. After a long struggle, the delegates from 
the cotton states—Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South 
Carolina, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas—withdrew from 
the convention. Reconciliation was impossible. Two sep¬ 
arate conventions were held at a later date. The northern 
Democrats nominated for the presidency Stephen A. Doug¬ 
las of Illinois. The southern Democrats nominated John 
C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, then Vice-President. An 
enthusiastic Republican convention at Chicago nominated 
Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The remnants of the Whig 


300 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


and the American parties (569), under the name of the 
Constitutional Union party, nominated John Bell of Ten¬ 
nessee. 

581. Four Platforms. —Every candidate expressed his 
wish to maintain the Union. Every party was for govern¬ 
ment aid in building a railroad to the Pacific. The Repub¬ 
licans spoke for protective tariff and against any change in 
the naturalization laws. Both Democratic platforms called 
for the acquisition of Cuba (565), and denounced state in¬ 
terference with the Fugitive Slave Law (549). The grand 
distinction, however, was found in the attitude toward 
slavery. Republicans represented the belief that slavery 
was morally wrong and politically hurtful, not to be inter¬ 
fered with in the states, but by national authority forever 
to be excluded from the territories. Douglas Democrats 
proposed to leave the question to territorial settlers, and 
were willing to submit to the decisions of the Supreme 
Court. Breckinridge Democrats counted slavery morally 
right and slave labor an industrial advantage, and held that 
it was the duty of the national government to protect in the 
territories slave property as any other. The Constitutional 
Union men ignored slavery altogether, and were “ for the 
constitution of the country, the union of the states, and 
the enforcement of the laws,” words which were purposely 
indefinite. 

582. The result was a Republican victory. Lincoln was 
elected, receiving the electoral votes of every free state ex¬ 
cept New Jersey. Missouri and New Jersey cast their votes 
for Douglas; Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennesseej for Bell; 
the others were for Breckinridge. The South regarded the 
election of a Republican President as a menace to the south¬ 
ern institution of slavery. To remain in the Union under 
him was represented as dishonor to southern leaders. 

583. Secession. —South Carolina, through a special con- 


FROM THE DRED SCOTT DECISION TO SECESSION. 301 


vention, passed an ordinance of secession, December 20th, 
1860, and her governor declared South Carolina a separate, 
sovereign, free, and independent state, having a right to 
levy war, conclude peace, negotiate treaties, etc. By a gen¬ 
eral movement and through similar conventions, Georgia, 
Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana seceded in 
January, 1861. Texas followed in February. 

584. The southern people had no opportunity to vote 
on secession. They elected conventions to consider public 
questions, and the conventions passed ordinances declaring 
the states out of the Union. It is believed by many that 
a majority of the southern people would have voted against 
secession. When once, however, a convention had declared 
a state seceded, its people, taught as they had been in the 
doctrine of state sovereignty (476), almost to a man felt 
bound u to follow their state.” 

585. The Confederacy. —The conventions of the seceding 
states elected delegates, who met at Montgomery, Alabama, 
in February, 1861, and formed a constitution for the “ Con¬ 
federate States of America.” This same convention, in 
order to put its government into operation, declared itself a 
Congress, and elected as President of the Confederacy, Jef¬ 
ferson Davis of Mississippi, and Alexander H. Stephens of 
Georgia as Vice-President (550). A flag was adopted, and 
preparations made for military defense. 

[The Confederate constitution copied that of the United States, only 
substituting the word “ Confederacy ” for “ Union,” and making some 
changes to secure an undisputed sovereignty of states. The whole 
government was called provisional. Stephens, the Vice-President, had 
been a strong Union man, but followed his state when it seceded.] 

586. The United States Government stood still. Presi¬ 
dent Buchanan claimed to have no right under the consti¬ 
tution to force the seceded states to return, and was weak in 
protecting United States property. Secretary of War Floyd 
had ordered stores of war from northern arsenals to places 


302 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


where they were easily seized by Confederates. Southern 
Congressmen and other officials generally resigned, and 
joined their states. The Confederates seized, without re¬ 
sistance, all United States forts, arsenals, custom houses, 
mints,etc., within their territory.' Fort Sumter,in Charles¬ 
ton harbor, and a few other posts on the coast, were alone 
defended. 

587. [Excitement and Conspiracy.—The whole country was in a 
state of excitement and anxiety. All attention w T as directed to the 
new President. Lincoln passed from Springfield, Illinois, toward the 
national capital, the recipient of public honors until he reached Phila¬ 
delphia. No honors were tendered him from Maryland, and evidence 
of a plot to assassinate him while passing through Baltimore, induced 
him to make the trip from Philadelphia to Washington by a night train, 
in advance of the time previously published. He arrived in safety at 
Washington (February 23d, 1861).] 

REVIEW. 

Find out all that you can about the following men, and then write 
an account of the part each one took in national affairs, from 1857 to 
1861: James Buchanan, Roger B. Taney, Stephen A. Douglas, Abraham 
Lincoln, John Brown. 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


303 



The National Capitol. 


CHAPTER XXXI. 

1861 - 1865 . 

The War of Secession. 


Abraham Lincoln, Illinois , President. 
Hannibal Hamlin, Maine, Vice-President. 


William H. Seward—State. 
Salmon P. Chase—Treasury. 

Simon Cameron, ) 

Edwin P. Stanton, j ^ ar * 

Gideon Wells—Navy. 


CABINET. 

Caleb B. Smith, ) 

John P. Usher, / Interior - 
Edward Bates, ) 

James Speed, /Attorney-General. 
Montgomery Blair, M General 
William Dennison, j 


For Explanation.— Letters of marque; belligerent powers; guerilla. 


588. The situation of the Republican administration 
was trying. Seven states had declared themselves out of 
the Union, and intended to stay out unless the administra¬ 
tion would surrender to them on the subject of slavery. 
The states lying between the secession area and the free 
states were distinctly hostile to bringing back the seceded 








304 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


states by force. In the North there was a strong sentiment 
that it was better to let them go than to have a war; hut 

a stronger sentiment de¬ 
clared that the unity of the 
nation must he preserved 
at any cost. The Presi¬ 
dent’s inaugural was thor¬ 
oughly peaceful. He as¬ 
sured the people of the 
South that their property 
was not in danger, that 
fugitive slaves should be 
delivered up, and he ques¬ 
tioned whether any con¬ 
stitutional right had ever 
been withheld from them. 
“ In your hands, my dis¬ 
satisfied fellow country¬ 
men, and not in mine,” he said, “ is the momentous ques¬ 
tion of civil war. The government will not assail you. 
We are not enemies, but friends; we must not be enemies.” 

589. [Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky, in 1809, of poor 
parents. The family moved to Indiana, and thence to Illinois. He 
had less than a*year’s school instruction in all his life, but he educated 
himself thoroughly by patient and careful study. From his boyhood 
up he was used to hard work. When he was sixteen, he served as fer¬ 
ryman on the Qhio. Three years later, he made a trip on a fiatboat, 
with a cargo to New Orleans. He could already make stump speeches, 
and was famous for his muscular strength and talent in telling anec¬ 
dotes. In Illinois he split rails, worked as a farm hand, and in a coun¬ 
try store. Still, poverty clung to him. He went to the Black Hawk 
War as a Captain of volunteers (498). In 1832 he ran for the legis¬ 
lature, and was defeated. He studied law, and by hard work won a 
good practice. He was a Representative in Congress (1847-9).] 

590. Fort Sumter. —Early in April President Lincoln 
ordered provisions sent from New York to Fort Sumter. 
When this word reached the South an order was tele- 



Abraham Lincoln. 














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OF ME 2T 1 o q 

Relative Population, Census 


ABEAS OP 


SECESSION, 


OF 


1860. 


1861 . 


Non-seceding, Pop. 21,337,508. 

SCALE 

0 50 100 200 300 

Early Secession, Pop. 4,969,141. 


Later Secession, Pop. 4,134,191. 
















































































































































































































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THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


305 


graphed from Montgomery (585) to General G. P. T. Beau¬ 
regard, in command of the Confederate batteries, to fire 
upon Sumter. Beauregard first called on Major Robert 
Anderson, the United States officer commanding, for the 
surrender of the fort. Anderson refused, and a heavy bom¬ 
bardment began on the morning of April twelfth, which was 
answered from Fort Sumter. By noon, April thirteenth, 
Anderson’s ammunition was exhausted, his fort in flames, 
and he surrendered, marching out with the honors of war. 

591. The Beginning of the War.—The civil war began 
with the bombardment of Fort Sumter. The flag had been 
fired on. The wavering spirit of the North was united in a 
storm of indignation. On April fifteenth the President 
called for 75,000 volunteer troops to serve for three months, 
to suppress rebellion, and four times the number offered 
themselves. Companies hurried from the North to protect 
the National Capital. On April nineteenth a Massachusetts 
regiment, passing through Baltimore, was attacked by a 
mob, and a few men were killed. Here was shed the first 
blood of the war. The South was equally excited and more 
united than the North. The Confederate Government called 
for 35,000 soldiers, and several times the number came for¬ 
ward. President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade of south¬ 
ern ports. The Confederate Government issued “ letters of 
marque” against the United States. In May President Lin¬ 
coln called for 42,000 volunteers, to serve for three years. # 
Virginia, North Carolina, and Arkansas joined the Confed¬ 
eracy, and the seat of government was moved from Mont¬ 
gomery to Richmond, Virginia. 

592. A General View of the War.—The Confederacy, 
claiming to be an independent nation, declared and waged 
war against the United States as a foreign power. The 
United States necessarily treated the people of the south¬ 
ern states as rebels against lawful authority. At the be- 

20-H 



306 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


ginning no one on either side realized how great a conflict 
was at hand. The South looked for a divided North. 
The North did not expect the South to hold out. The 
South looked for help from northern Democrats, and to 
be recognized and aided by European nations. The war 
which came was a trial of actual strength and endurance 
between North and South. On each side there was the 
unflinching courage, steady determination, and faithful 
devotion of true Americans. It was a war between vast 
armies, in a civilized country where railroads permitted 
quick movements, telegraphs afforded instant communica¬ 
tion, improved ordnance added to the destructiveness of 
conflict, and climate permitted almost continuous hostili¬ 
ties. The Union triumphed, and the South suffered a revo¬ 
lution in her whole life. 

593. Foreign nations did not think that the Union would 
be preserved. England profited by trade with the southern 
states, and was, therefore, disposed to aid the South, but was 
deterred from really forming an alliance. She, however, in 
May, 1861, acknowledged the Confederacy as a belligerent 
power, and other nations followed her example. England 
claimed to be neutral, but allowed Confederate vessels the 
protection of her harbors, and secretly aided the Confed¬ 
eracy in fitting out war vessels and with stores of war. 
Several Confederate cruisers were built and equipped in 
British ship-yards, and partially manned by British sea¬ 
men. France, also, was disposed to aid the Confederacy. 

594. [The Alabama was the most noted of Confederate cruisers. 
She did vast damage to the commerce of the United States. In 1864 
she was sunk in the harbor of Cherbourg, France, by the Kearsarge, 
Captain Winslow, after an hour’s fight.] 

595. [The Affair of Mason and Slidell. —In November, 1861, the San 
Jacinto , a United States war vessel, intercepted the British steamer 
Trent , in the West Indies, and took off tw T o passengers, James M. Mason 
and John Slidell, Confederate envoys to Europe, who had taken passage 
at Havana. Great Britain immediately complained, and threatened 


T1IE WAR OF SECESSION. 


307 



Map Questions.—Make a list of battles from the map in the order of 
their occurrence, giving date of each. About what is the distance from 
Washington to Richmond ? How many rivers lie between ? Did any 
other barriers to military movements exist? In what direction does 
the land slope on which these campaigns were conducted ? How can 
you tell ? 










308 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

war. This right of search had been resisted by the United States in 
the war of 1812 (431). The United States did not attempt to defend it 
now, but disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes of the San Jacinto, and 
surrendered the prisoners.] 

1. Around Washington and Richmond— 1861-3. 

596. Union troops gathered around Washington, under 
the command of General Winfield Scott (535). Serious 
fighting began in West Virginia, where the Confederates 
were driven backwards by troops who had crossed over 
from Ohio, under the command of General George B. Mc¬ 
Clellan. The North felt encouraged, and called for an 
attack on Richmond. The Union army made ready for 
motion. The Confederates hurried their forces up from the 
South to defend their capital. 

597. Battle of Bull Run (July 21st, 1861).—The Union 

force, under command of General Irwin McDowell, reached 
a little stream called Bull Run. A Confederate army, com¬ 
manded by General Beauregard, was posted at Manassas 
Junction. McDowell crossed the stream and drove back a 
part of Beauregard’s army. In the afternoon a fresh Con¬ 
federate army, under General Joseph E. Johnston, reached 
the field. The undisciplined Union soldiers were struck 
with terror, and fled in wild disorder. 

598. Army of the Potomac.—General McClellan was 
now put in command of the Union forces around Washing¬ 
ton, General Scott being relieved at his own request. Mc¬ 
Clellan thoroughly organized arid drilled his troops, who 
received the name of the Army of the Potomac. Wash¬ 
ington was rapidly fortified. 

599. Ball’s Bluff (October 21st, 1861).—In October a de¬ 
tachment of Union troops was sent across the Potomac, at 
Ball’s Bluff, to capture a Confederate force. Their infor¬ 
mation regarding the position of the enemy was faulty. 
The Union soldiers were cut off, and only a few got back 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 309 

across the river. This disaster at Ball’s Bluff was almost 
as discouraging to the Union as that at Bull Run. 

• 

600. McClellan’s plan was to transfer the army by water 
to Yorktown peninsula, and to advance on Richmond from 
the southeast. During the winter the Army of the Potomac 
had been increased to 200,000 men, all of them in good 
training. The government authorities wanted McClellan 
to march directly on Richmond. His objections were that 
there were many rivers to cross, and strong fortifications 
had been erected. In the spring of 1862 McClellan, with 
the principal army, was transferred to the vicinity of 
Yorktown; McDowell, with another army, was kept before 
Washington, and a force, under General N. P. Banks, was 
stationed in the Shenandoah Valley. The Confederate 
troops, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, hur¬ 
ried overland, and were ready to oppose McClellan on the 
peninsula. The latter spent a month in besieging York¬ 
town, and captured it May fourth, Johnston retiring north¬ 
ward. Union gunboats gained command of the James 
River to within eight miles of Richmond. 

601. Battles of Fair Oaks and Seven Pines (May 31st, 
1862).—McClellan gradually advanced his army, dividing 
it into two parts on either side of the Chickahominy River. 
His purpose was to stretch out his right wing, so as to 
communicate with McDowell, who was at Fredericksburg. 
Heavy rains deluged the army on the Chickahominy, and 
carried away the bridges. Johnston saw his opportunity, 
and attacked McClellan’s weaker division at Seven Pines 
and Fair Oaks. Johnston was wounded, and the general 
result was favorable to McClellan. 

602. Confederate Movements.—While Johnston was fa¬ 
cing McClellan before Richmond, General T. J. Jackson, 
known to his men as “ Stonewall Jackson,” one of the 
bravest and most competent officers in the southern army, 


310 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


was sent into the Shenandoah Valley. Making a rush up 
the valley he drove Banks and his army across the Poto¬ 
mac. It was thought that Washington was in danger, and 
McDowell, who had been ordered to help McClellan, was 
recalled for the defense of the capital. In the middle of 
June, Colonel J. E. B. Stuart, with Confederate cavalry, 
crossed the Chickahominy above McClellan’s right, rode 
completely around the Union army, cutting telegraph lines 
and tearing up railway tracks, recrossing the Chickahom¬ 
iny below McClellan’s left, and rejoining the Confederate 
force with the loss of only one man. 

603. Seven Days’ Battles (June 26th-July 1st, 1862).— 

McClellan was now unsupported. The Confederate army 
was commanded by General Robert E. Lee, the defender of 
Richmond from this time until the end of the war. Mc¬ 
Clellan had the superior army, hut the Confederate forces 
were concentrated against him. A series of fights, known 
as the Seven Days’ Battles, began at Mechanicsville and 
ended at Malvern Hill. The Confederate army attacked 
the Union troops at Mechanicsville (June 26th), and were 
repulsed. The next day they were successful at Gaines’s 
Mill, near Cold Harbor. McClellan was cut off from his 
supplies on York River, and resolved to fall back to the 
James River. This “change of base” would give him a 
new source of supplies. Lee’s army followed him, and 
there was constant fighting. The principal battles were at 
Savage Station (June 29th), Frazier’s Farm and Glendale 
(June 30th), and Malvern Hill (July 1st). At the end of 
the battle at Malvern Hill the Confederate army was de¬ 
moralized and broken. McClellan was still strong. He 
withdrew, however, to Harrison’s Landing. Here ended 
McClellan’s peninsula campaign. 

604. Pope’s Campaign, 1862.—Just before the Seven 
Days’ Battles all the Union troops around Washington 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


311 


were placed under the command of General John Pope, 
who had gained some distinction in the West. General 
Henry W. Halleck was made General-in-Chief at Wash¬ 
ington (611). Pope planned to march directly on Rich¬ 
mond, and he put his army in motion for that purpose. 
Lee sent Jackson to Gordonsville. The Confederate armies 
were recruited by conscription. Pope’s advanced division, 
under General Banks, was met and defeated by a Con¬ 
federate army under General Ewell, at Cedar Mountain 
(August 9th). Pope fell back to the Rappahannock. A 
midnight dash on his camp captured some of his staff offi¬ 
cers and his dispatch book, revealing all his plans. A sec¬ 
ond battle at Groveton, or Bull Run No. 2 (August 30th), 
utterly defeated Pope’s army. McClellan’s army was or¬ 
dered back to defend Washington. 

605. Lee’s First Invasion (September, 1862).—Lee now 

determined to carry the war into the North, hoping to re¬ 
ceive help from Maryland. He crossed into Maryland and 
took Frederick City, but instead of increasing, his army fell 
off more and more the farther he went from Confederate 
territory. The Confederate armies fought fiercely when at 
home, but could not be held together for invasion. Mc¬ 
Clellan spread out his army for the defense of Washing¬ 
ton and Baltimore. Lee was forced westward through the 
mountains. He made a stand at Sharpsburg, on Antietam 
Creek. Here was fought the great and decisive battle of 
Antietam (September 17th). Lee’s army was seriously 
weakened, and retreated to Virginia. 

606. McClellan Superseded.—McClellan’s failure to 
capture Richmond had been a great disappointment to 
the Union. He had lost the confidence of the government 
by constantly demanding more men, and continually at¬ 
tributing his reverses to the weather or the authorities at 
Washington. After the battle of Antietam he did not seem 


312 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


disposed to follow up the success vigorously, and General 
Ambrose E. Burnside was put in his place. There were 
many people, however, who felt that McClellan was not 
treated justly. 

607. Battle of Fredericksburg (December 13th, 1862).— 

Burnside was promoted against his own wish. He formed 
a plan of attacking Richmond by way of Fredericksburg, 
and put the army in motion. There was bad management 
and delay in crossing rivers. The Confederates gathered 
their forces at Fredericksburg, and strongly fortified the low 
hills on the bank of the Rappahannock. Burnside ordered 
an attack (December 13th). Brigade after brigade crossed 
the river and rushed to certain death before the Confed¬ 
erate intrenchments. The day’s work was a terrible disas¬ 
ter to the Union side. Burnside was superseded by General 
Joseph E. Hooker, known to his men as “ Fighting Joe.” 

608. Battle of Chancellorsville (May 23d, 1863).— 

Hooker’s army spent the early part of 1863 on the north 
bank of the Rappahannock. In April it crossed the river 
above Fredericksburg, and became entangled in the Wil¬ 
derness, the forest stretching from Fredericksburg to Rich¬ 
mond. Here it was attacked by the Confederates, and the 
great battle of Chancellorsville was fought. Hooker was 
rendered unconscious by a spent ball in the beginning of 
the fight. His army suffered heavy loss, and was driven 
back across the river. The Confederates lost “ Stonewall 
Jackson,” killed through mistake by his own men. Lee 
said that in Jackson he lost his right arm. 

609. Lee’s Second Invasion (June, 1863).—Lee again 
decided on invasion, and the two armies ran a race north¬ 
ward. Lee crossed the Potomac at Harper’s Ferry and 
entered Pennsylvania. His advance troops nearly reached 
Harrisburg. In the North there was great alarm. Hooker 
gave place to General George G. Meade. The Union army 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


313 


kept between Lee and the cities of Washington and Balti¬ 
more, and the two forces met at Gettysburg. 

610. Battle of Gettysburg (July 1st, 2d, and 3d, 1863).— 

The battle lasted three days. It was a tremendous struggle, 
the heaviest of the war, and one of the greatest in the 
world’s history. The Union army occupied the line of a 
crest of hills called Cemetery Ridge; the Confederates were 
on an opposite ridge called Seminary Ridge. Between 
them lay a small valley in which was the town of Gettys¬ 
burg. The Confederates had the advantage in the first 
day’s fighting; they were defeated on the third. Lee led 
his shattered army back into Virginia, followed by the 
Union forces. Never again was Lee strong enough to at¬ 
tempt invasion. 

2. The Wap. in the West—1861-3. 

611. In Kentucky and Missouri a strong effort was made 
to carry the states into secession. Union troops came in 
quickly from the states on the north, and secession was 
prevented. In Missouri there was hard fighting in 1861. 
Confederate troops came into Missouri from Arkansas and 
Texas. The Union force under General Nathaniel Lyon 
was defeated at Wilson’s Creek (August 10th), Lyon being 
killed. General John C. Fremont (537) was put in com¬ 
mand of the Union forces; soon superseded by General 
Henry W. Halleck. Under Halleck’s command the Con¬ 
federates were driven out of Missouri and Kentucky. 

612. Positions at the Beginning of 1862.—The Confed¬ 
erates held a line stretching through southern Kentucky. 
Their forces were under the general command of General 
Albert Sydney Johnston, who was considered one of the 
most brilliant officers of the war. In Kentucky were two 
Union armies, the larger under General Don Carlos Buell, 
in central Kentucky, the smaller under General U. S. 
Grant, at Cairo. 


314 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


613. Battle of Mill Spring (January 19th, 1862).—The 

Confederate line was broken by General George H. Thomas, 
with a division of Buell’s army, in a battle at Mill Spring. 
The Confederates were defeated and driven into Tennessee, 
their commander, General Zollicoffer, being killed. 

614. Forts Henry and Donelson blocked the Cumber¬ 
land and Tennessee Rivers. Both governments had built 
ironclad gunboats for service on the western rivers, some¬ 
times covering over steamboats with iron rails. Grant’s 
force advanced from Cairo up the Tennessee River. Union 
gunboats, commanded by Commodore Andrew H. Foote, 
captured Fort Henry (February 6th), a large part of the 
garrison escaping to Fort Donelson. Grant laid siege to 
Donelson, and by vigorous movements captured it (Febru¬ 
ary 12th). Union troops were now advanced to Nashville, 
and President Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson military 
governor of Tennessee. 

[At Donelson, in answer to a request for an armistice in order to 
arrange terms of surrender, Grant replied: “ No terms except uncon¬ 
ditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.” This gained him 
the nickname of “ Unconditional Surrender.”] 

615. Battle of Shiloh (April 6th and 7th, 1862).—Grant’s 
army, numbering about 40,000, was carried up the Tennes¬ 
see on steamboats, and encamped at Pittsburg Landing. 
Buell’s army was marching to unite with Grant’s. Before 
its arrival Johnston gathered all his forces, and struck a sud¬ 
den blow upon Grant’s army, at Pittsburg Landing. The 
Union troops that received the heaviest attack were inex¬ 
perienced, and were driven in confusion from their camp. 
Along the river they were protected by the gunboats, and 
during the afternoon and night some of Buell’s army 
arrived. On the following day, Grant rallied the Union 
army and recovered the lost ground, the Confederates re¬ 
treating hurriedly. General Johnston was killed. The 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


315 



Map Questions.—What reasons can yon give for the value of gunboat fleets in the West? State the ad¬ 
vantage of Kentucky to either side. What advantages had the Confederates for the defense of Tennessee? 
Describe the battles in the order of date under the following heads: Date; Name and Locality; Union 
Commander (see text); Confederate Commander (see text); Result (see text). 














316 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


battle is known as the battle of “ Shiloh,” from the name 
of a small church that stood on the battle field. It was the 
first great battle of the war. 

616. Corinth was the next important position for the 
Union army to gain. General Halleck assumed command 
in the field in person. His army was advanced slowly 
upon Corinth in a sort of siege, a battle being avoided. 
General Beauregard, who had succeeded Johnston in com¬ 
mand of the Confederates, abandoned Corinth, withdraw¬ 
ing his troops to the southward. Corinth was occupied by 
Halleck’s army (May 30th). The Confederates were now 
driven from West Tennessee, Memphis was occupied, and 
Union arms controlled the Mississippi as far as Vicksburg. 

617. Movements around Corinth.—Halleck having been 
called to Washington (604), Grant was placed in command 
at Corinth. His army was not strong enough for offensive 
operations, and had to depend on the country for supplies. 
There was considerable fighting, the Confederates trying 
to recapture Corinth and Nashville, but failing. Vicksburg 
was the next point toward the south for the Union army to 
gain. 

618. West of the Mississippi there had been some severe 
fighting. In a battle at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, in March, a 
Confederate army, under General Price and General Earl 
Van Dorn, was defeated by a smaller Union army under 
General Samuel R. Curtis, in command in southern Mis¬ 
souri. All through the war there was bloody guerrilla 
fighting west of the Mississippi. The guerrillas were rough 
fellows, without any military control, banded together for 
war and robbery, fighting against Union soldiers or any 
Union men. 

619. Invasion of Kentucky (September, 1862).—After 
the capture of Corinth, General Buell was sent eastward to 
attack Chattanooga. General Braxton Bragg, who had su- 


THE WAR OF SECESSION 


317 


perseded Beauregard, instead of facing Buell, struck north¬ 
ward into Kentucky. Buell rushed north at the same time, 
and reached Louisville ahead of Bragg. Buell’s army was 
strengthened from across the Ohio. As Lee in Maryland, 
so Bragg in Kentucky tried to gain the state for the Con¬ 
federacy, but without success. Buell fought an indecisive 
battle at Perryville. After about a month in Kentucky, 
Bragg turned back into Tennessee, taking with him a long 
train of wagons, loaded with captured provisions and cloth¬ 
ing, most valuable to the Confederacy. Buell was now 
superseded by General William S. Rosecrans. 

620. Battle of Murfreesboro (December 31st, 1862; 
January 1st and 2d, 1863).—Having left his plunder at 
Chattanooga, Bragg led his army to Murfreesboro. Gen¬ 
eral Rosecrans came on in December with about 40,000 
men to attack Murfreesboro. The two armies met on the 
last day of December on Stone River, a small stream just 
outside of the town. The hotly contested battle that fol¬ 
lowed was one of the bloodiest of the war. The advantage 
of numbers, if any, was on the side of the Confederates. 
Both Bragg and Rosecrans showed fine military skill. After 
three days’ fighting the Confederates withdrew, and a heavy 
storm prevented any further action. Of about 90,000 men 
engaged in the fight, one fourth were either killed or 
wounded. 


3. Along the Coast— 1861-2. 

621. The United States navy could not enforce the 
blockade of southern ports, until it was strengthened by 
new vessels, which the government at once began to build. 
Naval excursions in 1861 captured a fort at Hatteras Inlet 
(August 29th), and another at Port Royal (November 7th). 
From Hatteras Inlet attacks were made on other points on 
the North Carolina coast, and from Port Royal on the isl¬ 
ands between Charleston and Savannah. 



318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

622. The Merrimac.—In 1861 the Confederates had 
raised the Merrimac , a United States frigate, which had 
been scuttled in the navy yard at Norfolk. They covered 
her with iron, added a sloping roof of iron bars, gave her a 
heavy iron prow, and christened her the Virginia. She is 
better known, however, as the Merrimac. In March, 1862, 
she was ready for service, and steamed out of Norfolk to 
demolish the Union fleet at Hampton Roads (March 8th). 
In this fleet there were five large wooden war ships, and sev- 


Monitor and Merrimac. 

eral smaller ones. They poured their heavy cannon balls 
upon the Merrimac, but hardly dented her iron mail. 
Steaming at full speed toward the Cumberland, the Merri¬ 
mac ran her iron prow through the wooden ship, beneath 
the water, at the same time sweeping her deck with shot. 
In three quarters of an hour the Cumberland sunk, carrying 
down the sick and wounded. Next the Congress was badly 
damaged, and finally blown up. The others escaped to 
shallow water, and the Merrimac retired to her moorings, 
expecting to finish her work of destruction the next day. 







THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


319 


623. The Monitor was the name of a small sized, pecu¬ 
liarly constructed iron war vessel, invented by John Erics¬ 
son, which the United States had been building at New 
York. Almost entirely under water, she exposed only a 
cylindrical turret to the enemy’s shot. She was armed 
with two heavy guns within the turret, which could be 
revolved for the guns to fire in any direction. 

624. Fight between the Merrimac and Monitor (March 
9th, 1862).—The Monitor arrived in Hampton Roads just 
after the Merrimac had retired. When the huge Merrimac 
steamed out the next morning to finish the Union fleet, she 
was confronted by the little Monitor , and a desperate con¬ 
test ensued. The superiority of the Monitor for quickness 
was evident. She steamed around and around her antago¬ 
nist, both firing at close range. Five times the Merrimac 
tried to run the Monitor down, but each time the little war¬ 
rior glided out unharmed. For two hours the contest con¬ 
tinued. Finally the Merrimac , disabled and discouraged, 
returned to Norfolk, where she was subsequently blown up 
by the Confederates. 

[The battle between the Merrimac and Monitor showed the superior¬ 
ity of iron over wooden war ships. The United States built a number 
of monitors to guard the coast. European nations had already built 
ironclads for experiment, and after this fight wooden war ships were 
everywhere superseded by ironclads.] 

625. Union Captures along the Coast, 1862.—In Febru¬ 
ary a combined land and naval expedition captured a Con¬ 
federate post on Roanoke Island. Later, St. Augustine was 
captured by Union troops, and a firm hold was gained in 
Florida. Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah 
River, surrendered after a siege. The blockade (591) could 
now be enforced along the Atlantic shore. Wilmington and 
Charleston were the only Atlantic harbors in Confederate 
possession. These were closely watched by the blockaders. 

[After one unsuccessful attack on Fort Fisher in Wilmington harbor 


320 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


(December, 1864), it was captured in January, 1865. Wilmington soon 
after fell into Union hands.] 

626. New Orleans was a very important place to the 
Confederates, and they built strong defenses for it. Forts 
Jackson and St. Phillip, about thirty miles from the mouth 
of the Mississippi, were armed with heavy guns. Between 
the forts was a raft of cypress logs, held in place by six 
heavy chains, so as to block the river. From the forts to 
the city there were gunboats and batteries along the banks. 

627. The capture of New Orleans was accomplished in 
May, 1862, by Commodore David G. Farragut, command¬ 
ing a Union fleet, accompanied by land troops under Gen¬ 
eral B. F. Butler. After bombarding the fort for a week, 
Farragut decided to run his ships past them. A few 
daring men cut the chains under cover of night. The 
advance began about three o’clock on the morning of the 
twenty-fourth. Farragut’s ships passed close to the forts, 
receiving and returning a heavy fire. Getting past the forts, 
they engaged the Confederate fleet, and destroyed it after 
one of the most desperate yet successful battles of the war. 
New Orleans surrendered (April 25th), and the forts soon 
afterwards. General Butler was placed in command of New 
Orleans. 

[Union boats now had possession of all the Mississippi except the 
strip from Vicksburg to Port Hudson. Vicksburg enabled the Confed¬ 
erates to bring provisions from the southwest. They built an ironclad 
ram, the Arkansas, on the Yazoo River, in the hope of driving the Union 
fleet from the Mississippi. She was, however, destroyed by Union gun¬ 
boats.] 

628. [The Emancipation Proclamation.— During the first year of 
the war, President Lincoln checked attempts of Union commanders to 
free negro slaves. In 1862, however, the conclusion was forced upon 
him that the destruction of slavery was essential to the preservation of 
the nation. Therefore, on September twenty-second, just after the 
repulse of Lee at Antietam, the President issued a warning that on 
January 1st, 1863, he should declare that “all persons held as slaves, 
within any state or designated part of any state, the people whereof 
shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thence- 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


321 


forward, and forever free.” 
The Emancipation Procla¬ 
mation was issued on the 
day stated. Thus ended 
slavery in the United States. 
The President recommend¬ 
ed to Congress legislation 
offering compensation for 
the slaves of loyal citizens; 
but, on account of the oppo¬ 
sition of Democratic con¬ 
gressmen who disapproved 
of emancipation, such legis¬ 
lation was never enacted.] 

4. Abound Vicksburg— 1863. 

629. The Advantage 
of Vicksburg. — The 

possession of Vicks¬ 
burg would give the 
Union forces the con¬ 
trol of the Mississippi, 
and cut off the Con¬ 
federate supplies from 
the southwest. Grant 
constantly aimed at 
Vicksburg after he was 
placed in command 
of the army at Cor¬ 
inth. General W. T. 
Sherman, who had 
been with Grant at 
Shiloh (615), was his 
chief assistant. Sher¬ 
man conducted opera¬ 
tions against Vicks¬ 
burg toward the end of 1862, which at that time*could 
not be made successful. Early in 1863 he captured Fort 
Hindman, or Arkansas Post, and the way was open to 

21-H 










322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Vicksburg. General J. E. Johnston commanded all the 
Confederate forces confronting Grant. General J. C. Pem¬ 
berton was intrusted with the defense of Vicksburg. This 
city is situated on low hills at the outside of a great bend 
in the river. The Confederates had built fortifications of 
the strongest kind, and believed the place impossible to 
capture. 

630. Grant’s Movement on Vicksburg, 1863. —The Union 

army moved down the west bank from near Memphis, and 
dug a great canal across the bend of the Mississippi, for the 
purpose of moving the gunboats below the city without hav¬ 
ing to pass the Vicksburg guns. The current of the river 
proved too strong to be turned, and after two months’ work 
the attack from the west was given up. On the night of 
April sixteenth, the Union gunboats ran past the Vicksburg 
batteries without serious loss. Grant’s troops marched to 
Grand Gulf, and there the gunboats ferried them across 
the river. Sherman’s corps remained north of the city. 
Grant’s troops swung around from the south. Marching 
to the northeast until he came to Jackson, Grant beat off 
Johnston in a series of five successful battles, and cut off 
Pemberton’s supplies. Then uniting with Sherman, Grant, 
within twenty days from landing below the city, had Pem¬ 
berton shut up within Vicksburg. 

631. Assault, Siege, and Capture. —Grant first tried to 
take Vicksburg by assault, and a grand attack from all 
sides was made (May 22d), the gunboats having first bom¬ 
barded the city. It proved unavailing, and assaults were 
given up. A siege of six weeks exhausted the food of 
Vicksburg, and on July fourth Pemberton surrendered with 
37,000 men. The fall of Vicksburg and the blow to Lee’s 
army at Gettysburg (610) weakened the Confederacy, and 
filled the North with rejoicing. 

632. [Port Hudson surrendered five days after Vicksburg, to General 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


323 


Banks, who had succeeded Butler (627) in Louisiana. Union forces 
now controlled the Mississippi throughout its whole length. Grant 
sent*a force into Arkansas, which gained command of nearly the whole 
state.] 



Map Questions.—Describe the country around Chattanooga. In 
what way was it suited for defensive fighting ? 

633. Destruction of property that might be useful to the 
enemy became common on both sides. The great losses 
were necessarily on the side of the South. It was the policy 
of Grant and Sherman to exhaust the country of the Con¬ 
federacy, endeavoring however to protect private rights. 
Occasionally a Confederate cavalry raider dashed into 
Union territory. One of the boldest was the raid of the 
Confederate colonel, John'Morgan, who, with 4,000 horse¬ 
men, dashed across Kentucky and into Indiana and Ohio 
(July, 1863). He was captured before he could get back 
to Kentucky. 

5. Around Chattanooga— 1863. 

634. Chattanooga. —In 1862 the Union forces had gained 








324 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


western Tennessee; the mountains of the eastern section 
afforded strongholds for the Confederates. Chattanooga 
was an important point. Rosecrans’s army, which had 
been resting, moved south from Murfreesboro in June, 1863. 
Bragg’s army fell back to Chattanooga, but afterwards 
abandoned it, and took a strong position about twelve miles 
south, on Chickamauga Creek. 

635. The Battle of Chickamauga was fought between 
the armies of Rosecrans and Bragg (September 19th and 
20th). Bragg had been reinforced from Lee’s army, and 
Rosecrans was defeated. A part of his army fell back to 
Chattanooga; a part, however, commanded by General 
George H. Thomas, aided by General James A. Garfield 
(706), made a stubborn fight, and prevented a terrible dis¬ 
aster. Bragg besieged the Union army in Chattanooga. 

636. [The Siege of Chattanooga lasted about two months, and the 
Union army, under General Thomas, came near starving. Bragg was 
so sure that he would capture Chattanooga that he sent a corps, under 
General Longstreet, to besiege Knoxville, where General Burnside was 
stationed. Both places were held.] 

637. Battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Ridge (November 24th and 25th).—After the capture of 
Vicksburg, Grant was recognized as the foremost of the 
Union commanders. He was placed in control of all the 
forces, from the Alleghanies to the Mississippi, and was 
sent to Chattanooga. Under his management the mountain 
strongholds of the Confederates were taken by storm. The 
principal assaults were upon Lookout Mountain (November 
24th), and Missionary Ridge (November 25th), each a 
mountain about half a mile high. The Confederates were 
behind intrenchments on the summits, and thought them¬ 
selves safe. General Hooker commanded the assault upon 
Lookout Mountain, and General Sherman that upon Mis¬ 
sionary Ridge. All the Confederate troops were driven 
from Tennessee. Bragg’s army took post at Dalton, and 
Johnston was put in command. 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


325 


6. Sherman’s Advance into Georgia— 1864. 

638. Positions January 1st, 1864.—The Confederates 
had two great armies. Lee’s army of about 62,000 men 
was on the Rapidan, near Fredericksburg. Johnston’s 
army of 75,000 held a strong position at Dalton, Georgia. 
Throughout the Confederacy weakness showed itself. The 
armies were recruited by conscription; soldiers were poorly 
fed and scantily clothed. The Union troops were well fed 
and clothed. The principal armies were the Army of the 
Potomac (598), numbering 122,000 men, and the army in 
Tennessee of about 100,000 men. 

[In 1863 volunteering for the Union armies fell off, and some other 
way was needed to keep up the forces. Drafting was therefore resorted 
to. In the northern states lists of the names of able-bodied men were 
placed in a wheel, and a blindfolded man pulled out the names as 
chance directed. These men had to serve in the army, or hire substi¬ 
tutes. There was a great deal of opposition to the draft, and in New 
York city serious riots occurred.] 

639. Change of Commanders.—In March, 1864, Grant 
was made Lieutenant-General, and placed in command of 
all the armies of the United States. He placed Sherman 
in command in Tennessee, with orders to advance upon 
Johnston, and to do as much damage as he could to the 
country of the enemy. Grant went to Virginia to superin¬ 
tend. Meade remained in immediate command of the 
Army of the Potomac (609). 

640. Sherman and Johnston were wary and skillful 

generals. Sherman had the more powerful army, and he 
slowly drove his opponent back toward Atlanta. There 
was hard fighting, but both armies were skillfully pre¬ 
served. The principal contests were at Resaca, Dallas, 
and Kenesaw Mountain. 

641. Johnston Superseded.—Johnston was not willing 
to risk a decisive battle, for his army was not ready for it. 
Since Sherman drew his supplies by means of a single rail¬ 
road in his rear, the further he followed Johnston the more 


326 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


he was obliged to weaken his army for the defense of his 
supplies. Johnston’s retreat, though ably conducted, dis¬ 
pleased the Confederate government, especially Jefferson 
Davis. General J. B. Hood was therefore put in command 



Map Study.—Describe the direction of Sherman’s march. Make a 
list of the places touched by his army in the progress of his march. 
Which of these were places marked by prominent events in the Revo¬ 
lutionary War? 

of Johnston’s army. Hood’s movements were vigorous, 
and, as they proved, fatal. He rushed his army upon 
Sherman’s in several fights—the fiercest of which is known 
as the battle of Atlanta (July 22d). He was defeated, and 
fell back upon Atlanta. Early in September, Sherman 





THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


327 


gained a position toward the rear of Atlanta, and compelled 
Hood to leave the city. Sherman’s army occupied Atlanta 
(September 2d). In October, Hood moved his army to the 
northwest, hoping that Sherman would follow him, and the 
war be transferred again into Tennessee. Sherman had 
already sent nearly half his army into Tennessee, and 
placed General Thomas in command there. Sherman soon 
gave up the pursuit of Hood, and leaving him to be dealt 
with by Thomas, turned back to Atlanta. 

642. From Atlanta to the Sea.—Sherman had at At¬ 
lanta an army of 60,000 experienced soldiers. Around 
him lay the richest regions of the Confederacy, hitherto 
untouched by war and now defenseless, for Lee could not 
spare a man from Virginia, and Hood was in Tennessee. 
In November, Sherman burned Atlanta, and set his army 
moving toward Savannah in four parallel columns, cover¬ 
ing a space of about sixty miles. Railroads were torn up, 
bridges burned, and the country made desolate. The army 
lived on plunder. A month was spent in the march through 
Georgia, and during this time no one at the North knew just 
what had become of Sherman and his army. Sherman 
reached the vicinity of Savannah the middle of December, 
and communicated with the Union fleet on the coast. The 
North then knew that Sherman was safe, and that the Con¬ 
federacy was doomed to fall. Sherman captured Savan¬ 
nah after a siege of eight days, and remained there until 
February, 1865. 

643. Thomas in Tennessee.—Thomas gathered at Nash¬ 
ville all the troops under his control, and was ready for 
Hood when he approached to regain Tennessee. A battle 
was fought at Franklin (November 30th), and Hood’s army 
was badly damaged. He, however, laid siege to Nashville. 
Thomas routed the besiegers (December 15th and 16th), 
pursued them vigorously, and Hood’s army was scattered 
forever. 


328 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


7. Final Campaign in Virginia—1864-5. 

644. The Army of the Potomac, which Grant came from 
the West to command (639), as fine a body of men as ever 
went to battle, was nearly double the opposing army of Lee. 
The Confederate army had the advantage of defensive war¬ 
fare, and Lee had shown himself a commander of the high¬ 
est skill. The North had come to trust Grant as a patient, 
tireless, and vigorous commander. His policy was to mass 
the whole strength of the Union against its foes, and to 
overcome them by “ continuous hammering.” This plan 
had brought success in the West; it brought success in 
Virginia, but at a fearful cost. 

645. Grant’s Movements on Richmond.—Grant decided 
to fight his way to Richmond by the overland route, but 
with auxiliary movements on either side. An army of 
30,000 men, under General Butler, was sent by water to 
operate against Richmond from the south. Another army 
was sent up the Shenandoah to attack Lynchburg. Neither 
of these accomplished much. The main army was put in 
motion from the Rappahannock. 

646. Fighting in the Wilderness (May 5th-7th, 1864.— 

Lee had made military surveys of the country that the 
Union army had to traverse, and was prepared to avail 
himself of every advantageous position. He had built de¬ 
fenses around Richmond of the strongest kind. As soon 
as the Union army entered the Wilderness, Lee flung his 
troops upon it in fierce attack (May 5th, 1864). For two 
weeks there raged the bloodiest fighting of the war. The 
first three days’ fighting is known as the Battle of the Wil¬ 
derness; the last eleven days made the Battle of Spottsyl- 
vania Court House. From behind fortifications Lee’s 
army successfully resisted Grant’s assaults, which had to 
be given up. 

[The Union loss in these two weeks in killed, wounded, and captured, 
numbers 64,000 men. The Confederate loss was about 20,000.] 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


329 


647. Grant’s next plan was to keep Lee’s smaller army- 
busy in front, and by pushing out flanking parties force him. 
to fall back upon Richmond. In this manner Grant worked 
his way to the Chickahominy. Once more an assault of 
the whole Union army upon the Confederate works proved 
terribly disastrous. The center of the assault was at Cold 
Harbor (603). This second battle of Cold Harbor lasted, 
less than an hour. The assault was repulsed. The Union 
army was extended around to the south of Richmond, and 
without further loss, until it was confronted by the strong 
fortifications of Petersburg (June, 1864). 

648. The Shenandoah Valley.—The Union forces sent 
against Lynchburg (645) were unsuccessful, and were driven 
into West Virginia. In July Lee sent a force under General 
Jubal A. Early to rush through the Shenandoah Valley, 
and thence upon Washington. Early passed into Mary¬ 
land, found the defenses of Washington too strong for him, 
and returned into Virginia. Toward the end of July Early 
made a cavalry raid into Pennsylvania and burned Cham- 
bersburg. To stop these proceedings Grant appointed Gen¬ 
eral Philip H. Sheridan, who had been one of his ablest 
commanders, to the control of all troops in Western Vir¬ 
ginia and around Washington. Sheridan defeated Early 
at Winchester (September 19th). Later, Early surprised 
the Union army at Cedar Creek, twenty miles from Win¬ 
chester. Sheridan was at Winchester. He rode to the 
scene of the defeat, rallied his men, and again defeated 
Early. Throughout this fertile valley of the Shenandoah 
Sheridan burned and destroyed, so that a Confederate army 
could not again live in it. 

[The story of Sheridan’s ride from Winchester is told in the poem, 
“Sheridan’s Ride,” by T. B. Read.] 

649. The Siege of Petersburg occupied the army of the 
Potomac from July, 1864, to April, 1865. The Union army 


830 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


constantly increasing in numbers easily maintained a long 
circle around Richmond. Lee’s diminishing numbers had 



1. Sherman. 2. Sheridan. 3. Farragut. 

harder and harder work to hold their lines within. One 


















THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


331 


attempt was made to storm the works at Petersburg. A 
mine was dug beneath one of the Confederate forts, and the 
fort was blown up with gunpowder (July 30th). Union 
troops attempted to rush through the breach upon Peters¬ 
burg. They were thrown back with severe loss. 

8. Fall of the Confederacy— 1865. 

650. Final Movements.—By destroying Hood’s army 
General Thomas (643) left Sherman free to march whither¬ 
soever he pleased. By devastating Georgia (642) Sherman 
destroyed the basis of Lee’s support. From Savannah Sher¬ 
man started northward (February 1st, 1865), continuing 
his work of damaging the Confederacy. General Johnston 
had been recalled to oppose him, and did all that was pos¬ 
sible to gather a new army from the scattered fragments. 
Garrisons were removed from Confederate posts, and Johns¬ 
ton getting together about 40,000 men, fought Sherman 
furiously, near Goldsboro (March 19th). Sherman drove 
Johnston back, and the Union army rested at Goldsboro. 
With 10,000 cavalry Sheridan moved up the Shenandoah 
nearly to Lynchburg, scattering the forces that Early had 
collected. Then turning eastward, tearing up railways and 
cutting off Lee’s supplies, Sheridan passed to the north of 
Richmond and joined the army of the Potomac. 

651. Capture of Petersburg and Richmond (April 23d, 
1865).—Sheridan made a dash to Five Forks (March 2d). 
Lee had to lengthen his line still further, and his 40,000 
men could no longer protect it. Grant’s army, 100,000 
strong, burst through Lee’s intrenchments (April 2d). Lee 
withdrew his troops to the westward. Jefferson Davis and 
other civil officers escaped into North Carolina. The Union 
army entered Petersburg and Richmond, and once more 
the flag of the Union floated over the capital of Virginia. 

652. Lee’s Surrender.—Lee’s retreat was towards Lynch¬ 
burg. From that point he hoped to unite with Johnston in 


332 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


North Carolina. Sheridan pushed ahead of Lee and got 
between him and Lynchburg. Lee’s men, worn out and 



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3. J. E. Johnston. 


without food, were surrounded. On April 9th, at Appomat- 




























































































































THE WAR OF SECESSION. 


333 


tox Court House, Lee surrendered his army. Grant’s terms 
were generous. Lee’s troops were sent to their homes upon 
oath never again to bear arms against the United States. 


List of Great Battles, with Table of Losses on either side. 


Battle. 

Date. 

Killed. 

Wounded, 

Captured 
. or 

Missing. 

Total. 

Bull Run No. 1 . . . 

July 21,1861 . 

U. 481 
C. 387 

1,011 

1,582 

1,216 

13 

2,708 

1,982 

Fair Oaks or Seven Pines 

May31-June 1 
1862. 

U. 790 
C. - 

3,594 

647 

5,031 

7,997 

Seven Bays’ Battles . . 

June 25-July 1 

U. 1,734 
C. 2,836 

8,062 

13,946 

6,053 

755 

15,849 

17,537 

Pope’s Campaign . . . 

Aug. 16-Sept. 2 

U. 1,747 
C. 663 

8,452 

4,016 

4,063 

46 

14,462 

4,725 

Antietam. 

September 17 . 

U. 2,108 
C. 1,253 

9,549 

6,980 

753 

3,200 

12,410 

11,433 

Fredericksburg . . . 

December 11-15 

U. 1,284 
C. 595 

9,600 

4,074 

1,769 

653 

12,653 

5,322 

Shiloh . 

April 6-7 .. . 

U. 1,754 
C. 1,728 

8,408 

8,012 

2,885 

959 

13,047 

10,699 

Murfreesboro .... 

Dec. 31-Jan. 1-2. 
1863. 

U. 1,717 
C. 1,272 

7,794 

7,694 

3,665 

1,070 

13,176 

10,306 

Vicksburg Campaign . 

Jan.-July 4 . . 

U. 1,511 
C. - 

7,396 

453 

9,360 

* 

Chickamauga .... 

September 19-20 
1863. 

IT. 1,687 
C. 2,673 

9,394 

16,274 

5,255 

2,003 

16,366 

20,950 

Lookout Mountain . . 

November 23-25 

U. 757 
C. - 

4,529 

330 

5,616 

8,684 

Chancellorsville . . . 

May 1-4 . 

1864. 

U. 1,606 
C. 1,662 

9,760 

8,981 

5,919 

2,255 

17,285 

12,898 

Gettysburg. 

July 1-3 . . . 

U. 2,834 
C. 2,665 

13,709 

12,599 

6,643 

7,464 

23.186 

22J28 

Battles of Wilderness . 

Sherman’s Atlanta Cam¬ 

May 5-7 . . . 

U. 2,265 
C. 2,000 

10,220 

6,000 

2,902 

3,400 

15,387 

11,400 

paign . 

May 6-Sept. 15 

U. 4,423 
C. 3,044 

22,822 

18,952 

4,442 

fl2,983 

31,687 

34,979 

Franklin and Nashville 

Nov. 30-Dec. 16 

U. 589 
C. - 

2,773 

1,104 

4,466 

21,252 

Siege of Petersburg . . 

June 15-April 2 

U. 3,219 
C. - 

12,344 

3,872 

19,435 


* Total loss estimated at from 35,000 to 56,000 men, including those paroled, 
f Captured. 


653. General Surrender.—Johnston could do nothing 
after Lee’s surrender, and yielded his army to Sherman, at 
Raleigh, April 26th. Union armies were in control of all 
parts of the Confederacy. There was no place again to 
raise the Confederate flag, even had there been hands strong 


























334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, 

enough to do it. All the Confederate troops-east of the 
Mississippi surrendered early in May, and west of the Mis¬ 
sissippi a little later in the month. Confederate soldiers 
returned to homes which civil war had desolated. The 
Union forces were reviewed at Washington, and gradually 
disbanded, returning to prosperous states and happy homes, 
save where the hand of death had left a never to be forgot¬ 
ten sorrow. 

Finances of the War. 

654. The expenses of the government for maintaining 
its vast armies were enormous for the whole period of the 
war, reaching the amazing sum of $1,000,000 a day toward 
the close. The cost of the war can not be counted. Besides 
what was paid out from the revenues collected during the 
period, the end found the national debt over $2,750,000,000 
against about $65,000,000 at the beginning. Loyal states 
also were at vast expense, and churches, societies, and 
private persons had contributed for the care of sick and 
wounded. Moreover, in estimating the total cost of the 
war, the expenses of the Confederate states should also be 
added, and the losses from th*e destruction of public and 
private property make the sum too vast for computation. 

655. War Taxes.—Every available means was employed 
for filling the national treasury. Loans were made from 
home and foreign capitalists, through the medium of in¬ 
terest-bearing bonds and notes. United States notes, com¬ 
monly known as “ greenbacks,” payable on demand 
without interest, were issued in vast amounts, and were 
declared by law to be legal tender. As long, however, as 
the treasury of the United States contained no coin for 
their redemption, they circulated only at a discount as 
compared^with coin. Duties on imports were greatly in¬ 
creased, and high internal taxes were levied. 

[The interest-bearing notes were payable after short periods, as three 
years, the usual rate of interest being 7^ per cent per annum. The 


THE WAR OF SECESSION. 335 

bonds were payable after longer periods (twenty or forty years) with 
interest at 6 or 7 per cent per annum.] 

656. National Banks and New States. —From the end 
of the Bank of United States (1836) (482), until 1863, bank¬ 
ing business was entirely under state control. The need of 
an avenue through which government bonds might be sold 
brought about a national banking system in 1863. A Bu¬ 
reau of Currency was established in the Treasury Depart¬ 
ment, with a chief called the Comptroller of the Currency. 
Five or more persons could form a banking association, 
with capital not less than $50,000, deposited in government 
bonds with the Comptroller of the Currency. In exchange 
the banks thus incorporated would receive 90 per cent of 
the amount in the form of bills printed by the government, 
and after being signed by bank officers, to be loaned and 
circulated as money. No other banks of isstte were allowed 
by law. During the war two new states were admitted; 
West Virginia, cut off from the original state of Virginia, 
in 1863, and Nevada in 1864. 

657. [The Presidential election of 1864 resulted in the reelection 
of Abraham Lincoln as President, and the election with him on the 
Republican ticket of Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, as Vice-President. 
The Democratic nominees were George B. McClellan of New Jersey, for 
President, and George H. Pendleton of Ohio, for Vice-President. The 
Democratic nominees represented opposition to the war, as it had been 
conducted by the Republican administration, and a general belief that 
the attempt to bring baok seceded states should be abandoned. Lincoln 
and Johnson received 212 electoral votes, against twenty-one for Mc¬ 
Clellan and Pendleton.] 

The Final Tragedy. 

658. Assassination of President Lincoln. —The rejoic¬ 
ing of' the loyal sections over the surrender of Confederate 
armies was cut short by the mournful news of the death 
of President Lincoln. A few rash spirits had formed a plan 
of assassinating the leading government officials, in the 
vain hope of giving fresh life to the Confederacy. Presi¬ 
dent Lincoln was in the habit of occasionally visiting the 
theater, finding in the play some rest from his toil and 


336 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


cares. April 14th, 1865, John Wilkes Booth, an actor by 
profession, entered the President’s private box, and shot 
him in the head from behind. The wounded man died 
the next day. 

[Another assassin attacked Secretary Seward at his home, hut failed 
to take his life. After shooting, Booth leaped to the stage, and made 
his escape from the building through a stage door, and from the city 
Under cover of the night. Ten days later, he was found in a barn near 
Fredericksburg, Virginia, and on his refusal to surrender he was shot. 
Four other conspirators were condemned and hanged, and four more 
were imprisoned.] 

659. Mourning for the murdered President draped the 
whole loyal land in shrouds of black. The remains were 
borne in slow procession to Springfield, Illinois. On leav¬ 
ing Springfield in 1861 Lincoln had said to gathered friends: 
“ I now leave, not knowing when or whether ever I may re¬ 
turn, with a task before me greater than that which rested 
upon Washington. Without the assistance of that Divine 
Being, who ever attended him, I cannot succeed. With 
that assistance, I cannot fail.” And he did not. 

REVIEW. 

Make a list of the military events of the war, according to the 
form on pages 176, 177. 

Note. —In the Army of the Potomac, as it entered the final cam¬ 
paign around Richmond, there were four infantry corps (with attached 
artillery), commanded by Major-Generals W. S. Hancock, G. K. War¬ 
ren, John Sedgwick, and A. E. Burnside ; and one cavalry corps, com¬ 
manded by Major-General P. H. Sheridan. These five corps comprised 
eighteen divisions, commanded by one major-general and seventeen 
brigadier-generals; the divisions made up of fifty-one brigades, com¬ 
manded by twenty brigadier-generals and thirty-one colonels, each 
brigade made up of regiments commanded by colonels, and each regi¬ 
ment made up of companies commanded by captains. Lee’s army 
comprised three infantry corps under Lieutenant-General R. H. An¬ 
derson, Major-General Jubal A. Early, and Lieutenant-General A. P. 
Hill, and one cavalry corps under Lieutenant-General Wade Hampton. 
Each corps comprised three divisions, commanded by major-generals, 
each brigade being under a brigadier-general. 


THE CONSTITUTION AMENDED. 


337 


CHAPTER XXXII. 


1865 - 1869 . 

The Constitution Amended. 


Andrew Johnson, Tennessee , President and Vice-President. 


William H. Seward—State. 
Hugh McCulloch—Treasury. 
Edwin M. Stanton, ) 

John M. Schofield, j War ‘ 
Gideon Wells—Navy. 


CABINET. 

John P. Usher, 'V 
James Harlan, V Interior. 


| War. 


0. H. Browning ,) 
William Dennison, 
Alex. W. Randall, 


l ’ | Postmaster-General. 



660. To reconstruct governments in the states that had 
seceded was perhaps the most difficult problem ever pre¬ 
sented in our country’s history. If men rebel against 
monarchy their punishment is usually death; but in a 
monarchy the government is above and not in the people. 
Monarchies rule through military power; republics can 
stand only upon the confidence of the people. The men 
who had carried slave states out of the Union were not to 
be trusted with the work of remodeling them for freedom. 
Yet they were almost the only men in the South who had 
the ability to manage public affairs. 

661. [Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina, in 1808. His 
family belonged to the class known at the South as “ poor whites.” He 
moved to Tennessee in 1826, gained an education after he had grown to 
manhood, and became a member of the House of Representatives 
(1843-1853), Governor of Tennessee (1853-1857), and United States Sena¬ 
tor (1857-1862). He was the only Senator from a seceded state who re¬ 
mained in the Senate. He was always a strong Union man, but acted 
with the Republican party only while the war lasted. Before the war he 
was a Democrat, and as President he violently opposed the Republican 
measures for reconstruction. He was again elected to the Senate in 
1875, but died the same year.] 

662. President Johnson desired to punish the most 
prominent and wealthy of the Confederate leaders, for he 


22-H 




338 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


considered them to blame for the war; but he was not espe¬ 
cially anxious to protect the “ freedmen,” as the ex-slaves 
were called. Temporary governors had been appointed by 
President Lincoln for Tennessee, Louisiana, Arkansas, and 
Virginia. President Johnson made appointments for the 
other seceded states. Conventions were called, which met 
and repealed the ordinances of secession, promised never 
to pay the debt of the Confederacy, and ratified the Thir¬ 
teenth Amendment, proposed by Congress early in 1865. 
(Read Article XIII., Amendments to the Constitution.) 

663. The Reorganized States.—After these conventions 
the white people—the former voters—elected legislatures, 
and a state government was under way before the end of 
1865 in each of the states that had seceded. Ex-Confed¬ 
erate leaders were elected as members of Congress, and 
demanded their places. 

[The thirteenth amendment having been duly ratified by three 
fourths of the states was declared adopted in 1865.] 

664. The negroes in the southern states were utterly 
ignorant, and without ability or skill to work for them¬ 
selves or to protect themselves. The majority of northern 
people desired to see their condition improved, but would 
have been contented to see them allowed to live where they 
were under the same laws as white men, with opportunities 
to work and learn, but without the right to vote. The new 
legislatures in the ex-Confederate states, however, immedi¬ 
ately passed laws which, in some cases, amounted nearly 
to the reenslavement of the negroes. For crimes there was 
to be one penalty for a white man, and a severer one for a 
negro. The blacks were to be put under severe labor laws, 
and condemned as vagrants to forced labor if they were 
found idle. 

665. Quarrel between the President and Congress.— 

Republicans had a two-thirds majority in both houses of 


THE CONSTITUTION AMENDED. 


339 


Congress, and were united in the determination not to re¬ 
admit the seceded states into the Union until they gave full 
assurance that they would respect the rights of negroes. 
On the other hand, President Johnson claimed that Con¬ 
gress had no right to keep out these states after their state 
governments were reorganized. This quarrel ended only 
with the end of Johnson’s term. He was supported by 
Democrats in Congress and by the southern states out of 
Congress. The Republican majority, however, enabled the 
Republicans to pass any measure upon which they agreed, 
despite the President’s veto. 

666. The Reconstruction Acts.—The Republicans in 
1866-7 decided on a plan for admitting the states that were 
out of the Union. There were two main features. Negroes 
were to vote and the ex-Confederate leaders were to vote 
only when restored to political privileges by act of Congress. 
President Johnson vetoed these measures, but Congress 
passed them over the veto. 

[The secession area was divided into five military districts. In each 
district a United States officer was stationed with a sufficient force to 
maintain authority. Voters were to be registered, conventions held to 
provide new constitutions, guaranteeing the right to vote to citizens of 
whatever color or previous condition. When these constitutions should 
be regularly adopted, the states were to be admitted to their member¬ 
ship in the Union.] 

667. The plan of negro suffrage was adopted by Con¬ 
gress for the purpose of enabling the negroes to protect 
themselves. It was strongly opposed by white people in 
the South, for it made the despised blacks their political 
equals. The right to vote is of little use without proper in¬ 
telligence and education. Negroes had been kept in utter 
ignorance and the poorer whites were in almost the same 
condition. The old state governments had been controlled 
by a narrow circle of leaders, many of whom were now dis¬ 
franchised. Order was preserved by the troops of the 


340 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


United States, but the work of establishing civil authority 
on the new foundation was extremely slow. 

[The emancipation and enfranchisement of the negroes of the South 
at the close of the civil war forced at once and imperatively the ques¬ 
tion of their education upon the attention of the general and state gov¬ 
ernments. Normal schools for the training of colored teachers have 
been established in nearly every southern state, together with academies 
and colleges for the higher education of the negro. These, together with 
the common schools for colored children, derive their support mainly 
from state and national appropriations and the splendid donation of 
George Peabody, a native of Massachusetts, of over $5,000,000 for the 
encouragement of education in the South. Other considerable dona¬ 
tions have been made, chief of which is that of $1,000,000 by John F. 
Slater of Connecticut.] 

668. [Readmitted States.—Tennessee was readmitted in 1866. Ala¬ 
bama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina 
came in with new constitutions in 1868. Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, 
and Virginia held out against the requirements of Congress, and were 
not admitted until 1870. A new state, Nebraska, was admitted in 1867.] 

669. Amendments XIV. and XV. to the Constitution of 
the United States contain the permanent provisions of the 
Reconstruction Acts. States might exclude negroes from 
voting, but if they did so their representation in Congress 
was correspondingly diminished. The fourteenth amend¬ 
ment was proposed in 1866, and adopted in 1868. Its ac¬ 
ceptance was the test for the admission of the reconstructed 
states. The question of negro suffrage was the special sub¬ 
ject of the fifteenth amendment,which maybe regarded as 
a supplement to the fourteenth. It was proposed in 1869, 
and adopted in 1870, under a new administration. Any 
state may require property or educational qualifications for 
voting. It must, however, treat all colors alike. 

670. Tenure of Office Act. —The quarrel between the 
President and Congress over reconstruction extended to all 
the affairs of government. The President declared that 

669. Study Article XIV., Amendments to the Constitution. Make a list 
of its provisions in regard to negroes. State the steps made in Articles XIII., 
XIV., XV. 



THE CONSTITUTION AMENDED. 


341 


Congress was an illegal body, since southern states were 
not represented. He sought to strengthen himself by re¬ 
moving Republicans from office, appointing men who would 
support him in his quarrel with Congress. To check the 
President, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act (March, 
1867). It took from the President the power of removal in 
the case of the higher offices, except upon the approval of 
the Senate. President Johnson claimed that the Act was 
unconstitutional, and refused to obey it. 

[Read Article II., Section II., of the Constitution. The Tenure of 
Office Act was practically repealed after Grant became President.] 

671. Impeachment of President Johnson.—The contest 
between Congress and the President resulted in a trial of 
impeachment. In February, 1868, the President attempted 
to remove Stanton, Secretary of War, without the consent 
of the Senate. The House of Representatives immediately 
adopted Articles of Impeachment, reciting acts by which 
it was charged that the President had violated his oath 
of office, and had been guilty of misdemeanors. The case 
was argued at great length before the Senate, and finally 
came to a vote. Of the fifty-four Senators thirty-five voted 
“guilty,” nineteen “not guilty.” The two-thirds vote re¬ 
quired for conviction not having been cast, the President 
was acquitted. 

672. [Affairs in Mexico.—While the United States was rent with 
civil war, France took the opportunity to overthrow the feeble republic 
of Mexico and establish Maximilian, an Austrian archduke, as Emperor 
of Mexico. He was for a time maintained upon his throne by the aid 
of French troops. At the close of the civil war our country demanded 
the withdrawal of the French troops, and France complied. Maximilian 
remained, attempting to rule a country that hated him. In 1867 he 
was shot by the Mexicans, and their government was reestablished.] 

673. The purchase of Alaska from Russia was com¬ 
pleted in 1868, a preliminary treaty having been arranged 
the year before. At the time no one considered the acqui¬ 
sition very valuable. The wealth of Alaskan forests and 


342 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


fisheries is now recognized. The price paid was $7,200,000 
in gold. 

674. The presidential election in 1868 was decided on 
the question of approving or disapproving the Republican 
method of reconstruction. The Republicans nominated 
General U. S. Grant of Illinois and Schuyler Colfax of 
Indiana. The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour of 
New York and Frank P. Blair of Missouri. Grant and 
Colfax were elected. 

[Grant and Colfax received 214 electoral votes, Seymour and Blair 
seventy-one. Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia were not allowed to 
vote, being still out of the Union. Objection was made to counting the 
vote of Georgia, which sent in returns, although not readmitted to the 
Union at the time of the election. The House of Representatives sus¬ 
tained the objection, but the Senate did not. Counting Georgia, Sey¬ 
mour and Blair had eighty votes.] 


REVIEW. 


Amend¬ 
ments. j 


f 1. Why proposed. 

(XIII. \ 2. Provisions. 

(_ 3. Left former slaves in what condition. 

' 1. The President’s plan of ( 1. Main features. 

reconstruction. . .-j 2. How far carried out. 

[ 3. Why unsatisfactory. 

2. Congress’s plan of re- f 1. Main features, 
construction. . . «j 2. How enforced. 

[ 3. Results. 

1. (Sec. I.) 

2. (Sec. I.) 

3. Provisions. 3. (Sec. II.) 

I 4. (Sec. III.) 

I 5. (Sec. IV.) 

IX V. (1. Provisions. 


XIV. 1 




Left freedmen in what condition. 


QUESTIONS. 

Who are citizens of any state? What change in counting repre¬ 
sentation was made by the fourteenth amendment? What right had 
our country to demand the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico? 
How did the United States acquire Alaska? 







THE NATION ONE. 


343 


CHAPTER XXXIII. 

1869-1877. 

The Nation One. 


Ulysses S. Grant, Illinois, President. 
Schuyler Colfax, Indiana , \ 

Henry Wilson, Massachusetts ,/ Vice-President. 




Hamilton Fish—State. 


CABINET. 


George S. Boutwell, 1 

William A. Richardson, I 
Benjamin H. Bristow, j 
L. M. Morrill, J 

John A. Rawlings, 
William W. Belknap, 
James I). Cameron, 
Alphonso Taft, 

Adolph C. Borie, \ 

George M. Robeson, J 


Treasury. 


War. 


Navy. 


Jacob D. Cox, "i 
Columbus Delano, J Interior. 


John A. J. Cresswell, "t 
Marshall Jewell, l Postmaster- 

James N. Tyner, j GeneraL 


E. Rockwood Hoar, 
Amos F. Akerman, 
George H. Williams, 
Edwards Pierrepont, 
Alphonso Taft, 


Attorney-Gen¬ 

eral. 


For Explanation.—Tribunal; arbitration. 

To be Pronounced.—Staempfie (stem'fle); SclSp'ls; Itajuba (ee-ta- 
hoo'ba). 


675. Our country began its national life in the war for 
independence. Feeble at first, our national spirit strength¬ 
ened with the years, and proved our right to be respected 
by the rest of the world. It kept its steady course, reveal¬ 
ing to the world the new spectacle of a nation whose insti¬ 
tutions were designed for the elevation of men. Its great 
trial came, not in dangers from abroad, but in disunion at 
home. The systems of slave and free labor had grown side 
by side until both could no longer live together. In the fires 
of civil war the slave system had perished. Through the 
sorrows of this war, we rose again one nation, indivisible 
forever. When our constitution was formed, in the minds 
of many Americans state citizenship stood before United 
States citizenship; when it was amended, the order was re¬ 
versed. This change represents the constitutional growth 







344 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


of eighty years. The states stand, the foundation of our 
Republic. The Union stands, the preserver of American 
nationality. 

676. [Ulysses S. Grant was 

born in Ohio, in 1822. He was 
educated at West Point, gradu¬ 
ating in 1843. He had no fond¬ 
ness for military life, and would 
have chosen to teach mathe¬ 
matics at West Point, rather 
than serve in the field, had the 
choice been given him. He was 
assigned to service with an in¬ 
fantry company, which entered 
the Mexican War under General 
Taylor (529). Later, he served 
under General Scott. Grant did 
brave service, but was not pro¬ 
moted above first lieutenant. In 
1851 he was sent to the Pacific 
coast, where he was promoted to 
captain. He remained for three 
years on military duty, seeing a 
good deal of early California life, 
and forming the hope of some day making his home in this state. Not 
being able to provide for his family from his small salary, he resigned 
his commission in 1854 and became a farmer, living near St. Louis. In 
1858 he was a real estate agent in St. Louis, and in 1860 he moved to 
Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in his father’s store. In 1861 he 
was commissioned a colonel, and placed in command of a regiment of 
Illinois volunteers, which went into service in Missouri (611). He soon 
became a brigadier-general. His further progress is told in the history 
of the Civil War. As lieutenant-general he continued in command of 
the United States army until his election as President.] 

677. The Treaty of Washington is the name of a treaty 
between Great Britain and our country, arranged in 1871. 
There were several matters in dispute—our boundary line 
in the northwest corner, our right to fish off the coast of 
Canada, and damages to commerce during the civil war. 
The treaty provided for the appointment of tribunals of 
arbitration, to which should be submitted each question of 



THE NATION ONE. 


345 


dispute. The northwest boundary was left to the Emperor 
of Germany, who decided in our favor, fixing the boundary 
through the Pacific inlets, as it now appears on our maps. 
The arbitrators appointed for the fishery dispute made their 
decision in 1877, and we paid $5,500,000 to Great Britain 
for the use that our fishermen had made of waters along 
the Canada shore. 

678. [The Fishery Question.—The right to catch fish along the shore 
of British possessions was guaranteed to us at the close of the Revolu¬ 
tion. By a treaty in 1818 our government agreed that American fisher¬ 
men should not fish within three miles of inhabited portions of Canada. 
Disputes arose over the application of this rule, as to whether the dis¬ 
tance should be measured from any point of the shore, or from head¬ 
land to headland. The question of our right to use Canadian fisheries 
is still at issue (1887).] 

679. The Alabama Claims were the estimated damages 
done to the commerce of the United States by the Alabama 
(594) and other cruisers fitted out in British ports during 
our civil war. The appointed arbitrators met at Geneva, 
Switzerland, examined claims, listened to arguments, and 
decided, in 1872, that Great Britain should pay to the 
United States $15,500,000, in full for all damages. This 
is known as the Geneva Award. 

[The Geneva arbitrators were Sir Alexander Cockburn of Great 
Britain, Charles Francis Adams of the United States, ex-President 
Staempfle of Switzerland, Count Sclopis of Italy, and Baron Itajuba of 
Brazil. Citizens of Great Britain had claims against the United States 
for similar losses, and a separate board of arbitrators decided that the 
United States should pay Great Britain $1,928,819, in full for all claims.] 

680. The West Indies. —Negroes occupying the western 
half of Hayti established the Republic of San Domingo in 
1844. This government desired to be annexed to the United 
States. President Grant favored annexation, and a treaty 
was arranged. The Senate, however, refused to ratify the 
treaty, and the plan of annexation was abandoned. Cuba 
rebelled against Spain in 1868. In the United States there 
was much sympathy for Cuba, and in 1873 the Virginius, 


346 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


an American vessel, was loaded with supplies for the Cu¬ 
bans. While on the open sea, and under the United States 
flag, she was captured by a Spanish war vessel. Spanish 
authorities condemned and shot several of the crew and 
passengers. President Grant indignantly protested, the 
Spaniards ceased their executions, returned the ship and 
the surviving prisoners, and made apologies that were ac¬ 
cepted. 

681. The first transcontinental railroad was completed 
in 1869. It had been planned before the civil war, and 
work was commenced while the war was in progress. The 
line from Omaha to San Francisco was constructed by two 
great companies, the Union Pacific from Omaha to Ogden, 
and the Central Pacific from Ogden to San Francisco. This 
line of railway brought the Atlantic and Pacific shores into 
close communication, while rapid travel and freighting 
quickened the development of the Pacific coast and added 
to the wealth of the whole country. 

[The building of the Pacific railway was a vast undertaking, too great 
to be accomplished by private enterprise alone. The government there¬ 
fore, in 1862 and 1864, gave subsidies, or help, to the companies under¬ 
taking the work. It became responsible for interest on bonds, and gave 
the companies every alternate section of public land for twenty miles 
each side of the railway so far as it should be constructed. The subsidy 
in land to the Central Pacific and Union Pacific amounted to 25,000,000 
acres. In similar manner the government has since aided the construc¬ 
tion of other great railways.] 

682. [Great Fires at Chicago and Boston.—In October, 1871, the 
greatest fire of modern times occurred at Chicago. It lasted for three 
days. The burnt district included 3,000 acres and the loss of property 
amounted to $200,000,000. The same month there were terrible forest 
fires in Wisconsin, in which more than 1,500 persons were burned to 
death. A great fire occurred in Boston in November, 1872, which caused 
a loss of $70,000,000 in some of the best property of the city. The whole 
country sent aid to the sufferers by these fires. The burnt districts in 
the two cities were quickly rebuilt with larger and finer buildings.] 

683. Troubles in the Southern States.—Negro suffrage 

681. Find a railroad map and learn how many railway lines now cross 
the continent of North America. 



THE NATION ONE. 


347 


proved to be a source of disorder rather than of good gov¬ 
ernment in the South. The white people for the most part 
hated to see a ballot in the hands of a black man, and par¬ 
ties in the reconstructed states were divided on the “ color 
line.” The negroes had to look to white men for employ¬ 
ment, and it was easy for white men to keep their laborers 
from the polls. Violence was used when threats failed. 
Corruption and bribery infested the local governments. 
Disorders were worst in South Carolina, Mississippi, Ar¬ 
kansas, and Louisiana. Some of the governments appealed 
to President Grant, and upon his order United States troops 
were sent into these states. 

[The presence of troops was considered a grievance by many in the 
South. More hateful than the troops were men from the North, who 
settled in the South, and tried to get offices by negro votes. Such men 
were called “ carpet-baggers,” because they were said to come into the 
country with only a carpet-bag. A southern white who voted with the 
negroes was called a “ scalawag.”] 

684. [The Ku-Klux Klan was a secret society, organized in the 
southern states after the war. It undertook to keep the negroes in sub¬ 
jection, or to prevent them from voting. Under its name negroes were 
intimidated, and whites were attacked who were disposed to defend the 
negroes. Murder became a sort of business. Congress in 1871 gave the 
President extreme powers to enforce the constitutional amendments, 
and stop these disorders. The better class of the southern people con¬ 
demned the deeds of the Ku-Klux, and the society was suppressed.] 

685. The presidential campaign of 1872 was contested 
chiefly upon the Republican management in the South. A 
number of Republicans disapproved the extreme measures 
resorted to in order to keep peace. Under the name of 
Liberal Republicans, they nominated Horace Greeley (686) 
of New York for President. The Democrats were unsettled 
in their policy, and decided to indorse the Liberal Repub¬ 
licans in platform and candidates. The regular Repub¬ 
licans renominated General Grant by acclamation, and 
Henry Wilson of Massachusetts for Vice-President. Apart 
of the Democrats made other nominations. The regular 
Republican nominees were elected. 


348 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


[Grant and Wilson received 286 out of 366 electoral votes. No vote 
was counted for Greeley. The returns of Arkansas and Louisiana were 
rejected as illegal; the vote of Georgia would have been counted for 
Greeley, had he been living when the returns were opened in Congress.] 

686. [Horace Greeley was born in New Hampshire, in 1811. After 
varied experience in newspaper work, he began, in 1841, the publication 
of the New York Tribune , which became one of the most powerful news¬ 
papers of the country. No man has ever become more widely known 
or exerted more influence through the columns of a newspaper than 
Horace Greeley. He was by nature a reformer. He attacked slavery, 
called out sympathy for Ireland in time of famine, and demanded pro¬ 
tection for plundered Indians. He firmly upheld the American System 
of Clay ( 474 ), and was necessarily objectionable to many Democrats. 
He died in 1872, soon after his defeat.] 

687. Serious political scandals dishonored the Repub¬ 
lican administration under President Grant. The “Credit 
Mobilier ” was a corporation organized by stockholders of 
the Union Pacific Railroad for taking contracts in building 
their railway. Favorable legislation for the company was 
desired by Congress, and Credit Mobilier stock was given 
to Congressmen for the purpose of influencing their votes. 
An investigation in the House of Representatives, in 1872- 
73, resulted in a vote of censure against two members. 
The “Whisky Ring” was a conspiracy of distillers and 
revenue officers in the central states for defrauding the 
government out of the tax on distilled liquors. It was 
detected in 1875, and suppressed. 

688. The centennial anniversary of our Declaration of 
Independence was celebrated with hearty spirit. The end 
of one hundred years found a nation cherishing the liberty 
fought for and won by its forefathers, and swiftly yet 
steadily advancing in power. As a part of the celebration, 
a grand International Exposition was held at Philadelphia. 
Nearly 10,000,000 people visited the Exposition. Colorado 
entered the Union in 1876, and is therefore often called the 
Centennial State. 

689. Manufacturing industries advanced rapidly in New 


THE NATION ONE. 


349 



England and the middle states, developing also in the 
South. Cloth manufacture, especially cotton, brought about 

improved ma¬ 
chinery, which 
has utilized the 
abundant water 
power of the 
New England 
states. Nothing 
shows better 
the contrast be¬ 
tween this cen¬ 
tury and the 
preceding than 
a comparison of 
the old time 


Spinning Jenny in San Francisco Factory. 


spinning wheel with a modern jenny; or the weaving room 
of a modern factory with the loom in which the cloth worn 
by the soldiers of the Revolution was woven by their wives 
and mothers. 






















350 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


690. [Indian Wars.—Modoc Indians living in the corner of Califor¬ 
nia and Oregon refused to move to a reservation, and murdered the 
peace commissioners sent to them. For a year they defended them¬ 
selves in the lava beds of the old volcanic region where they lived. 
They were subdued in 1873. Another Indian war was fought in 1876 
With the Sioux tribe of Dakota Territory led by Sitting Bull. They 
Were driven into southern Montana. General Custer with a cavalry 
regiment came upon the tribe encamped on the Big Horn River and 
rashly attacked. Custer and his men were surrounded and every one 
slaughtered. Fresh troops drove the Sioux warriors into British 
America.] 

691. Financial Troubles.—There was prosperity through¬ 
out the land during Grant’s first administration. The gov¬ 
ernment debt (654), so large at the end of the war that 
many despaired of paying it, was reduced with a rapidity 
that astonished every one. Railroad building was active, 
and in every direction new agricultural land was brought 
into communication with the markets. In 1873 there was 
a reverse. Many railroads did not pay expenses. Crops 
were poor in some places. Money became scarce and a 
financial panic brought on many business failures. 

692. The presidential election of 1876 was a close con¬ 
test between the Republicans and Democrats. The Repub¬ 
licans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes (696) of Ohio, and 
William A. Wheeler of New York. The Democratic nomi¬ 
nees were Samuel J. Tilden of New York, and Thomas A. 
Hendricks of Indiana. Democrats proclaimed Republican 
administration to be corrupt, and promised to carry out 
reforms. No great issues were brought before the people. 
When the ballots were counted throughout the country the 
result of the election was doubtful. In Florida, Louisiana, 
Oregon, and South Carolina both parties claimed the elec¬ 
toral vote. If the electoral votes of all these states were 
counted for Hayes he was elected; losing any one of them 
he was defeated. 

[Florida and Louisiana were the ground of the chief dispute. There 
Was evidence that in these states violence had been used to keep 


THE NATION ONE. 


351 



negroes from voting the Republican ticket. The reconstructed gov¬ 
ernments had established Returning Boards, whose duty it was to can¬ 
vass election returns and to throw out the votes of districts where fraud 

and violence were 
proved. In Florida 
and Louisiana the 
returns, before in¬ 
spection, gave the 
Democrats a ma¬ 
jority; after correc¬ 
tion by the Re¬ 
turning Boards, a 
Republican majori¬ 
ty was declared.] 

693. The 
Electoral Com¬ 
mission.— Never 
before had so se¬ 
rious a difficulty 


Weaving Room in San Francisco Factory. 


occurred in the choice of a President. Congress was di¬ 
vided, the Republicans having control of the Senate, the 
Democrats of the House of Representatives. The danger 
























352 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


was that no decision would be reached before the fourth of 
March, and civil war might follow. By a sort of com¬ 
promise Congress established an Electoral Commission for 
the emergency, with power to settle all disputes. It was 
composed of fifteen members—five Supreme Court Justices, 
five Senators, and five Representatives. By its decision 
the disputed votes were counted for Hayes and Wheeler, 
and they were therefore declared elected. 

[The electoral vote as finally counted was 185 for Hayes and Wheeler, 
and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. It had been designed to elect on the 
commission seven Democrats and seven Republicans, with the fifteenth 
man a non-partisan. As matters turned the commission consisted of 
eight Republicans and seven Democrats. Every question was decided 
by a strictly partisan vote of eight to seven. The country had been 
greatly excited, and ill feeling at the result ran high among the Demo¬ 
crats. The decision, however, was legal, and therefore was accepted by 
the whole country. 

REVIEW. 


Grant’s administration, j Domestic. 


1. Treaty of Washington. 

2. Fishery award. 
"Foreign. .- 3. Alabama arbitration. 

4. San Domingo. 

. 5. Virginius affair. 

1 . 

2 . 

I 5 - 
16 . 

1 . 

2 . 

. Political.. -j ^ 

' 5. 

6 . 
















































































































































































































































































































































































































































THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


353 


CHAPTER XXXIV. 

1877-1887. 

The Beginning of a New Age. 

To be Pronounced.—Nez Perce (nay per'cy); A-pa/che. 

694. The second century of our national life can in no 
respect be a repetition of the first. Every age has its own 
work to do, and its own problem to solve. It must do its 
work, and solve its problems with whatever power it has. 
Happy the age that can call strength and wisdom its own; 
full of woe and trouble, if it be beset with weakness and 
folly. Very often men look upon the past as better than 
the present. Perhaps, because they cherish the memories 
of their youth, and never again see years so happy as their 
early ones. No one, however, can look back upon the first 
century of our nation and fail to see a constant progress, 
and a progress on the whole for good. It is for the youth 
of the present, understanding the work of the past, to be 
strong and wise to do the work of a new age, the begin¬ 
ning of which is now with us, but the end of which no man 
can see. 

1 . 


Rutherford B. Hayes, Ohio, President. j 

William A. Wheeler, New York , Vice-President^ 

CABINET. 


William L. Evarts—State. 

John Sherman—Treasury. 

George W. McCrary, ) 

Alexander Ramsay, j War * 

Charles Devens—Attorney-General. 


1877 - 81 . 

Richard W. Thompson, 1 
Nathan Goff, J ^ av y* 

Carl Schurz—Interior. 

David M. Key, 1 Postmaster-Gen- 
Horace Maynard, j eral. 


695. Hayes’s administration began under the disfavor 
resulting from a disputed election. The country in general 
enjoyed quiet, and was not disturbed by exciting political 
contests. The President withdrew the remaining troops 
from the southern states, and military rule at the South 
came to an end. The Democratic party gained control in 

23-H 


354 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Congress, and tried to repeal many of the laws that had 
been passed by the Republicans. President Hayes used 
the veto freely, and only a few measures were passed over 
the veto. There was important legislation in regard to 
finances and earnest discussion of Chinese immigration 
(712). The army was reorganized, and reduced to fit the 
needs of a peaceful country. 

696. [Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. After 
graduating from Kenyon College, Ohio, he studied at Harvard Law 
School and became a lawyer. He joined the Union army in the Civil 
War and became a brigadier-general. He was a Representative in Con¬ 
gress (1865-7), and Governor of Ohio (1868-72 and 1876-7). As Presi¬ 
dent, he endeavored to make appointments for the good of the public 
service, and to maintain purity in the government. After his presi¬ 
dency, he lived at his home at Fremont, Ohio, interesting himself in 
promoting the work of popular education.] 

697. United States Coinage. —Gold coins, eagles, halves, 
and quarters, and silver coins, dollars, halves, quarters, 
dimes, and half dimes, were established by law in 1792. 
These coins were “ lawful tender in all payments whatso¬ 
ever.” The silver dollar weighed 416 grains troy. In 1837 
this weight was reduced to 412-J grains, and small coins in 
proportion. In 1834 other gold coins—double eagles and 
three-dollar pieces—were authorized. In 1853 the weight of 
half dollars and smaller coins was still further diminished, 
and they were made legal tender only in sums not exceed¬ 
ing five dollars. In 1873 the coinage of silver dollars was 
stopped. A new silver dollar, called a “ trade dollar,” 
weighing 420 grains, was established, but in 1876 it was 
abolished as legal tender. ' Its coinage was continued in 
quantities sufficient for export. Gold was thus made the 
standard money of the United States, and silver was said to 
have been demonetized. A cry for silver money was again 
raised throughout the country, and in 1878 the silver dollar 
of 1837 (412-| grains) was reestablished and made again 
legal tender for all payments except on contracts stipulat¬ 
ing gold. - This measure, known as the remonetization of 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


355 


silver, was passed over the veto of President Hayes. Other 
silver coins were made legal tender for payments not ex¬ 
ceeding ten dollars. 

698. [Money Standards.—If a country is very poor, copper answers 
for its money. When it gets richer, silver is better money, and with 
still greater wealth, gold money is needed. In a country like ours 
there is need of a great deal of gold money, considerable silver, and 
some copper. Our government, until 1853, tried to maintain what is 
called a double standard in money, gold and silver being coined in 
nearly equal amounts, and either legal tender for all payments. The 
difficulty in this plan is to regulate the relative weights between gold 
and silver coins so that both will circulate freely; for, from causes be¬ 
yond control, the supply of either one metal or the other is bound to 
vary and drive the dearer out of circulation, since people will pay their 
debts in the cheaper coin, using the dearer metal for jewelry, etc. The 
various changes in weights were attempts to keep the ratio of weight 
between gold and silver dollars equal to the ratio of market value be¬ 
tween the two metals—something no one has ever succeeded in doing.] 

699. Resumption of Specie.—The paper currency/‘green¬ 
backs” (655), issued by the United States during the civil 
war, circulated as money, but at a depreciation as com¬ 
pared with coin. As people began to gain confidence that 
the government would eventually pay its debts, greenbacks 
rose in value. At length the treasury was in a condition 
to redeem its promises, and Congress ordered that after 
January 1st, 1879, the Treasurer of the United States should 
pay coin for greenbacks. This is known as the resumption 
of specie payments. Greenbacks at once became equal in 
value to gold. 

700. Refunding the National Debt.—Where there is 
known to be risk a high rate of interest must always pre¬ 
vail. When the government was running into debt enor¬ 
mously every year, it could borrow money only by paying 
high rates of interest. The government bonds sold during 
the war bore interest at from 6 to 7 T V per cent. When the 
government was paying off its debts as fast as the terms 
of the loans would allow, it was easy to get money at lower 
rates, for there was no risk to the lender. The national 


356 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


debt was therefore refunded, that is, new bonds at lower 
rates of interest (3 to 4^ per cent) were sold, and the money 
received was used to pay off the former bonds. 

701. The presidential election of 1880 resulted in favor 
of the Republican nominees, James A. Garfield (706) of 
Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur (708) of New York. The 
Democratic nominees were General Winfield S. Hancock 
of New York, and William H. English of Indiana. Gen¬ 
eral Hancock had served with high distinction in the 
Union army, and was a popular candidate. The southern 
states had become Democratic, and supported Hancock. 
The chief political issue between the parties was the tariff, 
the Democratic platform calling for a “ tariff for revenue 
only” (365), the Republicans standing for protection (366). 

[Garfield and Arthur received 214 electoral votes against 155 for Han¬ 
cock and English. The Republican nominating convention was very 
exciting. Ex-President Grant and James G. Blaine of Maine were the 
leading candidates. On the thirty-sixth ballot, when it became evident 
that neither Giant nor Blaine could be nominated, enough votes were 
transferred to nominate Garfield.] 

702. [Ex-President Grant had recently returned from a tour around 
the world, in which he had spent most of his time since leaving the 
President’s office. He had been the welcome guest of both European 
and Asiatic monarchs, receiving honors above any other American of 
his time.] 

703. [The Greenback Party was called into existence through oppo¬ 
sition to specie resumption. It favored the issue of irredeemable paper 
currency as the money of the country. Presidential nominations were 
made, but the candidates gained no electoral vote.] 

2 . 

James A. Garfield, Ohio, President, March to September 19,1881. 

Chester A. Arthur, New York, Vice-President. 

CABINET. 

James G. Blaine—State. William H. Hunt—Navy. 

William Windom—Treasury. Samuel J. Kirkwood—Interior. 

Robert T. Lincoln—War. Wayne McVeigh—Attorney-General. 

Thomas L. James—Postmaster-General. 

704. Garfield’s Administration. —A great deal was ex¬ 
pected from President Garfield. A man of ability, purity 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 357 

of character, and experience in public affairs, the nation 
hoped for the correction of abuses in the government. Es¬ 
pecially it was hoped that there would be honesty and 
reform in the civil service. Garfield was steady in his 
purpose to select suitable persons for office, and there arose 
ill feeling among politicians and a great deal of angry dis¬ 
cussion in the newspapers. 

705. Assassination of the President. —A half-demented 
wretch named Guiteau, who had been refused an appoint¬ 
ment, resolved on murderous revenge. On July 2d, 1881, 
at a railroad depot in Washington, he shot the President in 
the back, wounding him, as it proved, mortally. For eighty 
days the strength of Garfield fought off death, but gave way 
at last. On September nineteenth he died at Elberon, near 
Long Branch, New Jersey, whither he had been taken for 
the benefit of the cool sea air. His patience and fortitude 
in that long struggle for life won him the love of a nation 
which had already respected and honored him. His re¬ 
mains were taken to Washington, and thence removed to 
their final resting place at Cleveland, Ohio. The whole na¬ 
tion mourned as for a friend, and foreign rulers sent many 
tokens of respect to the bereaved family. 

706. [James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio, in 1831. After work¬ 
ing his way through school and graduating from Williams College, Mas¬ 
sachusetts, he became a professor at Hiram College, Ohio, where he had 
previously attended as an academic student. Later he studied and 
practiced law. He served in the Union army, rising to the rank of 
major-general. He was a Representative in Congress (1863-81), elected 
Senator in January, 1880, but raised to the chief magistracy before 
taking his seat. His career was that of a man ever faithful and earnest, 
rising from a low station to the highest.] 


358 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


3. 

Chester A. Arthur, New York, President — 1881-5. 

CABINET. 

F. T. Frelinghuysen—State. William E. Chandler—Navy. 

Charles J. Folger, ) Henry M. Teller-Interior. 

Hugh McCullough, j ireasur y- 

Robert T. Lincoln-War. Ben J- H - Brewster-Attorney-General. 

Timothy 0. Howe, 'j 

Walter Q. Gresham, > Postmaster-General. 

Frank Hatton, ) 

707. Arthur’s Administration was far more successful 
than that of any of the preceding Vice-Presidents who suc¬ 
ceeded to the first position through a President’s death. 
Soon after taking the oath of office he appointed a new Cab¬ 
inet, retaining, however, Robert T. Lincoln, son of Abraham 
Lincoln, as Secretary of War. 

708. [Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont, in 1830. He was 
educated at Union College, New York, and became a lawyer, gaining a 
lucrative practice. During the civil war he did good service on the staff 
of the Governor of New York. He was Collector of Customs at New 
York (1871-8), becoming an influential man in New York political cir¬ 
cles. He died in 1886.] 

709. The New South. —The whole country enjoyed pros¬ 
perity during the years of Arthur’s term. Nowhere, how¬ 
ever, was prosperity more noticeable than in the Southern 
States. The energy of the southern people had been di¬ 
rected into new channels. With free labor agriculture be¬ 
came more varied, and manufactures were commenced. 
The establishment of public schools began the work of 
popular education, neglected at the South under the old 
rule. 

[In the winter of 1884-5 a grand international exposition was held at 
New Orleans, the purpose of which was to show to the world the prog¬ 
ress which the South had made under the rule of freedom. The results 
were surprising even to Southerners.] 

710. Yorktown Centennial. —In 1881 the hundredth an¬ 
niversary of the surrender of Cornwallis was celebrated at 
Yorktown (338). Besides the chief officers of the United 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


359 


States, representatives were present from Great Britain, 
France, and Germany. To close the celebration, President 
Arthur had the flag of Great Britain raised, and a salute 
fired in its honor. 

711. The Mormons. —The Mormons (510) gathered in 
Utah continued to practice polygamy, in spite of the pre¬ 
vailing sentiment of civilization condemning it. They 
sought to evade, and at times threatened to resist the 
authority of the United States. In 1882 Congress passed 
a strict law (Edmunds Act), designed to suppress polyg¬ 
amy, and the Mormons tried hard to prevent its enforce¬ 
ment. The national government opposed the formation of 
a state in Utah, because of the danger that Mormons would 
control it in the interest of polygamy. 

712. Chinese Immigration. —The building of the trans¬ 
continental railways (681) required a great amount of un¬ 
skilled labor, and Chinese were largely employed. China 
has almost a countless population, and her people have ac¬ 
customed themselves to methods of labor and cheapness of 
living which Americans and Europeans cannot endure. On 
the Pacific Coast, and especially in California, the Chinese 
found abundant opportunities for labor and traffic far su¬ 
perior to any in their native land. Chinese immigration 
increased rapidly from year to year (about 3,500 in 1855; 
19,000 in 1875). Their numbers in California alarmed and 
excited white laborers, who were forced out of employment 
by the cheaper labor of the Chinese. Serious riots resulted. 
Congress investigated, and attempted restrictive legislation. 
Our treaty with China (known as the Burlingame Treaty, 
obtained from China through the influence of Anson Bur¬ 
lingame, our Minister to China, 1861-7), however, allowed 
Chinese laborers to come into the country as those of any 
other nation. President Hayes appointed three envoys, 
who proceeded to China and concluded a new treaty, per- 


360 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


mitting restriction and suspension of immigration, but not 
absolute prohibition. This treaty was ratified, and pro¬ 
claimed a law in 1881. In 1882 a law was passed sus¬ 
pending the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United 
States for a period of ten years. 

[Chinese already in the country were free to go and come again, tak¬ 
ing certificates with them at the time of departure from the United 
States.] 

713. Tariff History. —The uniform ad valorem rates established by 
the compromise tariff of 1833 (486) did not provide adequate revenue 
for the government after 1842, and new regulations were attempted. 
Lack of harmony between Congress and President Tyler (514) pre¬ 
vented changes until 1846. In that year, the Democratic party being 
in control of the government, a new tariff law was established, founded 
mainly on principles of free trade (unrestricted commerce—manufac¬ 
turers being left to sustain themselves). Protective rates were retained 
on some articles, but were somewhat reduced in 1857. Thus, from 1846 
until I860, our country had a system of tariffs not purely for revenue, 
but founded upon anti-protectionist principles. In 1860 began a series 
of changes which placed our country again under a distinctly protective 
system. A falling off of national revenue following the reductions of 
1857 led to a new tariff (known as the Morrill tariff, from its author, 
Justin S. Morrill, of Vermont), Which became a law in 1861, and consid¬ 
erably increased protective rates. The necessities of the government 
during the war led to enormous taxation in every way (655), and under 
Republican management the tariffs became purely protective, with 
higher rates than ever before in our history, the average rate collected 
being forty-seven per cent of the value of the goods. The country 
accepted the high rates, as war measures, required by the needs of the 
government, but the protective system of these war tariffs gained so 
firm a hold that no attempt to lessen protective rates succeeded in 
making essential changes until 1883. On the other hand, protective 
rates on some articles, as wool and woolen goods, and steel rails, were 
raised even above the war rates, reaching in a complicated manner 
sixty, eighty, and 100 per cent. 

714. Tariff Commission and Reform.—Congress, in 1882, 
provided for the appointment of a commission to examine 
into the tariffs and report a plan for revision. Some changes 
and reductions were recommended by the commission at 
the following session of Congress (1882-3). The recom- 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


361 


mendations were followed in part by Congress, but the tar¬ 
iffs of 1883 left the country still under a strongly protective 
system, with extremely high rates on many very important 
articles. In 1884 there was another unsuccessful attempt 
at tariff' reduction. Both Democrats and Republicans were 
divided on the question of protection. 

715. Civil Service Reform, 1883. —For regulating the 
appointment of officers in the civil service of the United 
States, a law was passed in January, 1883. It provided a 
system of competitive examinations for the selection of 
appointees, and non-competitive examinations to determine 
fitness for promotion. Competitive examinations were to be 
held in all states and territories, and appointments made 
in proportion to the population. A Civil Service Commis¬ 
sion of three persons was provided to aid the President in 
making rules for the service, and to superintend examina¬ 
tions. 

[The system of examinations does not apply to the higher offices for 
which confirmation by the Senate is necessary. The law also prohib¬ 
ited all officers from giving or receiving money for political purposes, 
and declared that no recommendation for appointments by members 
of Congress should be accepted, except as to character and residence.] 

716. [Floods and Winds.—The Mississippi River and its larger tribu¬ 
taries have done great damage within recent years. A flood on the 
lower Mississippi, in 1882, drove 100,000 people from their homes. As 
the valley has been settled, forests have been cleared away, and the 
drainage of the land has been improved. This is no doubt a partial 
cause of the floods. In 1883 and afterwards peculiar wind storms, called 
cyclones , from their circular movement, were terribly destructive in sec¬ 
tions of the upper Mississippi Valley.] 

717. [The United States Signal Service, under the management of 
the War Department, has stations along the coast and through the in¬ 
terior. The telegraph enables warning of approaching storms to be 
sent to distant points.] 

718. [Arctic Exploration.—The old desire for a sea passage from 
Europe to Asia, through the Arctic, was revived in the nineteenth cen¬ 
tury, stimulated by eagerness for geographical discovery and scientific 
research. There were numerous notable expeditions. Sir John Frank- 


362 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


lin, an English explorer, sailed with two ships in 1845, but did not re¬ 
turn. Many attempts were made to rescue him, or to learn his fate. Dr. 
Elisha Kane, an American, conducted one of these expeditions in 1853. 
He became convinced that open water surrounds the pole, as a polar 
sea. In 1878-9 Nordenskjold, a Swedish explorer, passed through the 
Arctic, the first to accomplish a Northeast Passage. In 1879 the Jean¬ 
nette, a steam vessel owned by James Gordon Bennett, publisher of the 
New York Herald , sailed from San Francisco to prosecute exploration 
in the far North. She was commanded by Lieutenant George W. De 
Long. The expedition was ill-fated, the vessel being crushed in the ice 
of the Arctic Ocean, and only one third of the company succeeding in 
reaching settlements in Siberia. In accordance with a plan adopted at 
an International Geographical Congress in 1879, the Signal Service Bu¬ 
reau, in 1881, sent Lieutenant A. W. Greely, U. S. A., with a party of 
twenty-four men, to maintain a station for scientific observation in the 
extreme North. The plan was to send provision ships each year, and 
in case these failed to reach the station the party was to return south¬ 
ward overland, after their two years’ provisions should begin to give 
out. Relief expeditions of 1882 and 1883 failed. Greely held his station 
(named Fort Conger), prosecuting the work of exploration till August, 
1883. Then he attempted to retreat, but was stopped by open water. A 
relief expedition in June, 1884, found and brought back Greely and six 
companions, all who had to that time fought off starvation.] 

719. The presidential election of 1884 was closely con¬ 
tested. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine of 
Maine, and John A. Logan of Illinois. The Democratic 
nominees were Grover Cleveland of New York, and Thomas 
A. Hendricks of Indiana. No great issues were brought 
out in the campaign. The contest was full of personalities 
touching the private character of the nominees. The state 
of New York gave the Democratic candidates a small plu¬ 
rality, and decided the election in favor of Cleveland and 
Hendricks. 

[Cleveland and Hendricks had 219 electoral votes against 182 for 
Blaine and Logan. A considerable number of Republicans in the 
eastern states supported Cleveland on the ground that Republican 
administrations had not promoted purity in the civil service. These 
Independent Republicans supporting the Democratic nominees were 
nicknamed “ Mugwumps.” The Prohibition party, calling for the sup¬ 
pression by law of traffic in alcoholic liquors, nominated John P. St. 
John of Kansas. The Greenbackers, uniting with local parties favoring 
laws in the interest of the laboring classes, nominated Benjamin F. 
Butler of Massachusetts. Neither party gained any electoral vote.] 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


363 


4. 


Grover Cleveland, New York , President—1885. 

Thomas A. Hendricks, Indiana , Vice-President (died November , 1885). 

CABINET. 


Thomas F. Bayard—State. 

Daniel Manning, ) 

C. F. Fairchild, (Treasury. 

William C. Endicott—War. 

William F. Vilas, 
D. M. Dickinson, 


William C. Whitney—Navy. 

Lucius Q. C. Lamar, > 

William F. Vilas, j Ic terior ‘ 

Augustus H. Garland—Attorney-General 

Postmaster-General. 


For Explanation. —Merchant marine. 


720. Cleveland’s Administration.—For the first time 
since Buchanan our country had a Democratic President. 
This fact :js important simply in showing that the old ques¬ 
tions of the Civil War were laid aside, and that new ones 
were demanding attention. As the old questions came to 
be settled and were laid away in the past, so the men who 
had settled them one by one went to their rest. 

[General Grant died in July, 1885, after a long continued illness. At 
his death the nation honored him even more grandly than in life. Gen¬ 
eral McClellan died three months later. General Hancock died in Feb¬ 
ruary, 1886, and General Logan in December. At the funeral of General 
Grant ex-Confederate soldiers joined with his JJnion comrades in the 
last sad honors. Other occasions gave opportunities for a grasping of 
hands by the Blue and the Gray.] 

721. [Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. He re¬ 
ceived an education in common schools and in an academy. Having 
studied law he was admitted to practice at the age of twenty-two. He 
located at Buffalo, New York, gained some note as a lawyer and filled 
the positions of assistant district attorney and sheriff. He was mayor 
of Buffalo (1882), Governor of New York (1883-4), and President (1885- ).] 

722. [The Grand Army of the Republic is the name under which the 
volunteer Union soldiers kept alive the memory of their services. They 
grouped themselves in “ posts,” or associations in towns and cities, and 
maintaining their military organization, assembled in yearly national 
encampments. A braided hat on parade and a buttonhole badge in 
business dress designated the veterans of the Union. Through the 
association poor and needy comrades were cared for. Pensions were 
liberally bestowed by the government. There could be no pensions, 
however, for the Confederate veterans or for the widows and orphans 
of the South.] 


364 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


723. New questions were before the people, growing out 
of the mutual relations of employers and the employed, the 
growth of monopolies, popular resistance against them, and 
plans for their control. Plans to guard against corruption 
in office holders and among electors, to extend government 
service in public telegraphs, to protect remaining public 
territory against “land grabbers,” to preserve forests and 
fisheries, to give national aid to education, to suppress the 
liquor traffic, and to adjust the relation of a rapidly growing 
foreign population to a matured American nationality, were 
also subjects of discussion. 

[Relations with foreign nations presented no new phases, save that 
the United States, from carrying on an independent commerce before 
the civil war, almost lost her merchant marine, sending exports,and 
receiving imports almost entirely in foreign ships. Americans seemed 
to give up the sea, being contented with their wealth on land. Their 
navy, too, rotted away with age and fell behind the world in armor and 
equipment. The one great question received by the new age unsettled 
from the past was that of tariffs, for the experience of a century had 
not produced an unequivocal answer.] 

724. The Indians continued to afford employment for 
United States troops, whenever the progress of settlements 
invaded their ancient lands or reservations once set apart 
for them. There was trouble in 1877 with the Nez Perce 
tribe in Idaho. Arizona tribes terrorized that country until 
1874; then they were sent upon reservations. In 1885 and 
1886 there was serious trouble from their leaving the reser¬ 
vations and attacking settlers. The Apaches were the most 
troublesome tribe. Peace came by the subjection of the 
savages and their return to the reservations. Some of the 
chiefs were held as prisoners. 

725. Strikes and riots were common in the large cities 
in the years from 1877 to 1887. A strike is the refusal on the 
part of a number of workmen engaged in the same business 
to work except upon certain conditions. Throughout the 
land mechanics and laborers of all classes had formed 


THE BEGINNING OF A NEW AGE. 


365 


Unions—organizations for controlling hours of labor and 
daily pay, and for taking care of sick or unfortunate mem¬ 
bers. These organizations had been growing for many 
years. Trouble and riots began when striking laborers 
went beyond simple refusal to work and undertook to pre¬ 
vent other men from taking their places. Sometimes the 
strikes spread over large areas of the country. In a great 
strike of railroad employes in 1877 at least 100,000 men 
were at one time out of work, and every railway was affected 
from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. 

726. [A national organization of trades unions, under the name of 
Knights of Labor, gained considerable notice in 18S6 and 1887. The 
unions, in many cases controlled by men of foreign birth, frequently 
adopted methods of operation imported from the old world. Chief of 
these is the “ Boycott,” an attempt to make a man employ only men 
belonging to some one of the Unions, by trying to ruin his business in 
case he refuses.] 

727. Inventions still kept pace with the growth of the 
nation. An energetic people, as ours has shown itself to 
be, finds a way for an improvement whenever the need of 
improvement is perceived. Engines, cars, street railways, 
printing presses, farming implements, and manufacturing 
appliances—all mechanical things—receive improvements 
from year to year. Most notable for these years was the 
application of electricity to the lighting of cities and build¬ 
ings and to the transmission of mechanical power, as in 
electric railways. 

728. [Among great works of architecture may be mentioned the 
Washington Monument, commenced in 1848 by voluntary subscription, 
and after a long interval, in which nothing was done, completed in 1884, 
chiefly through government aid. It is a lasting memorial to the fore¬ 
most of Americans, the highest structure in the world, counting in total 
height 555 feet 5£ inches. One of the great products of engineering 
skill is the Brooklyn suspension bridge. It joins New York City and 
Brooklyn, spanning East River at a height sufficient to clear the masts 
of the largest ships. It has five avenues, one for footmen, two for com¬ 
mon vehicles, and two for street cars. The weight of the whole is sup¬ 
ported by four immense wire cables, made by twisting wires into ropes 
and the ropes into cables. It was opened for use in May, 1883.] 


366 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


729. The Centennial of the Constitution was appropri¬ 
ately noticed in September, 1887, by a celebration at Phil¬ 
adelphia, which aimed to present in visible form the vast 
material progress of the country in a hundred years. The 
century closed leaving the constitution essentially as its 
makers left it. The country for which it was designed had 
changed as no other portion of the earth ever changed in the 
same number of years. Why had the constitution stood? 
Because it was founded in wisdom and justice, and there¬ 
fore nothing could prevail against it. So also if the work 
of the present age be done wisely, justly, honestly, it shall 
stand for the coming years, as the constitution has stood, a 
power for good, for the elevation of men. 

Make a tabular review of the events of this chapter. 

QUESTIONS. 

Has the United States at the present time a “ single” or a “ double” 
standard in coinage? Do you know of any advantages of “paper 
money” over coin? How would the payment of all national debts 
affect the national banking system? What vice-presidents have suc¬ 
ceeded to the first place by a president’s death? By election? What 
vice-presidents have died in office? When did the United States begin 
protective tariffs ? Haye we ever had a free-trade system ? Divide our 
history into periods with respect to our tariff laws. What reasons can 
you give why we require a system of appointing officers much more 
now than under the first administration ? Read the signal service bul¬ 
letin at your post office. What information does it give? Make a list 
of the political parties that made nominations at the last election and 
state what stand each takes in regard to questions now before the 
country. Write a paragraph about each of the “new questions” re¬ 
ferred to in Article 723. 


EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


367 


CHAPTER XXXV. 

Education and Science. 

It is by education that the man first becomes truly a man.— Plato. 

The training of youth should be a concern of the state.— Aristotle. 

Did I know the name of the legislator who first conceived and sug¬ 
gested the idea of the common schools, I should revere him as the 
greatest benefactor of the human race.— Swift. 

1. Educational History. 

730. National Schools.—While giving liberally to the 
states in aid of education, the United States has never un¬ 
dertaken the management or supervision of any system of 
public schools for the nation. In the District of Columbia, 
however,—a Federal district wholly under the control of 
Congress—excellent public schools have been established 
and fostered by the General Government. The subject of 
establishing a national University early attracted the at¬ 
tention of the founders. Pinckney (426) and Madison 
(420) sought to give, in the Constitution, express power to 
Congress to establish such a university. Adams and Jef¬ 
ferson proposed to secure it by “ transplanting entire the 
members of the University of Geneva (Switzerland) to 
America.” Washington, while doubting the wisdom of 
this policy, advocated the establishment of a IC National 
Institution of General Learning,” and as the motive to this 
he says: “At the juvenile period of life, when friendships 
are formed and habits established that will stick by one, 
the youth from different parts of the United States would 
be assembled together, and would by degrees discover that 
there was not cause for those jealousies which one part of 
the Union had imbibed against another part.” Notwith¬ 
standing these early views, no national schools have been 





368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

established save the military academy at West Point (437) 
and the naval academy at Annapolis (496). 

731. National Land Grants in Aid of Education. —Con¬ 
gress was led in 1785, by public sentiment and by the ex¬ 
ample of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Georgia, to make 
provision for public education in new states and territories 
by grants of land. This provision consisted at that time 
in setting apart in every township of government land, one 
section (640 acres) for the support of schools. The man¬ 
ner of disposing of these lands and investing the proceeds 
for public school purposes, was left to the several states and 
territories. At the same time two townships of land within 
each state thereafter to be admitted were donated for the 
purpose of establishing a university. Ohio, and all the 
western states admitted during the first half of the present 
century, received for the common school fund the sixteenth 
section of each township, and for university endowment, 
two full townships. States admitted since 1848 have re¬ 
ceived grants of two sections of land in each township for 
the support of common schools, and of two townships for the 
support of a university. In addition to this, Congress, in 
1862, donated to each state, for the support of a college 
of agriculture, 30,000 acres of government land for each 
senator and representative from that state in Congress. 
Various other grants have at different times been made. 

732. A National Bureau of Education was established 
by Congress in 1866, charged with the duty of collecting 
information from all parts of the Union and from foreign 
countries touching provision made for common schools, nor¬ 
mal schools, colleges, universities, and technical schools,— 
the methods of instruction pursued, the progress made, and 
all facts that might aid in improving the means of general 
education. The information, when collected, was to be 
published and distributed throughout the country by a 
Commissioner of Education, to be appointed by the Presi- 


EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


369 


dent, and who should have charge of the bureau. Henry 
Barnard, a man distinguished for his eminent services to 
education, was the first commissioner. Frequent publica¬ 
tions from this bureau have done much to increase the gen¬ 
eral interest in education and improve the work done in its 
behalf. 

733. State Provision. —Following the practice of the 
colonies from which they grew, the original states made 
various provisions for public schools. Nearly every state 
constitution declared it to be a high duty of the state to 
foster intelligence among the people by means of schools. 
The subject, however, received much more attention in 
some states than in others, but in none of them was our 
present system of free common schools fully established 
until a comparatively recent date. The appropriation of 
public funds was supplemented by a tuition fee called a 
“ rate bill,” a source of more or less annoyance for many 
years. Through the influence of many able and zealous 
friends of universal education, a public sentiment gradually 
grew up which demanded the complete equipment of the 
common schools at the public expense. Under this de¬ 
mand the “ rate bill ” has disappeared from every state in 
the Union, and the people of the United States now expend 
annually $100,000,000 for public education, or three times 
as much as England and six times as much as France. 

734. [The character of the early schools was not high. Competent 
instructors were few and methods of instruction and discipline had not 
been touched by the refinements of later years. “A globe,” says Ed¬ 
ward Everett, “ I believe I never saw at a public school, near enough to 
touch it.” An academy that he attended had a small library, but the 
room was used as the whipping-room and the little fellows were afraid 
to go near it. The text-books were all foreign and all poor, the school- 
house cheerless and uninviting, cold in winter, hot in summer, without 
ventilation or provision for comfort or health.] 

735. Sources of Revenue —The large sums expended 
by the states for common schools (733) are derived mainly 
from the interest on the proceeds of the sales of public lands 

24-H 


370 HISTORY OF THE UNITER STATES. 

(731), from state and county taxes annually appropriated 
by the legislature, from local district and city taxes, from 
a per capita or poll tax, from fines and penalties collected 
for violation of certain laws. In some states, voluntary 
gifts like the Peabody (667) form a considerable portion of 
the revenue. 

736. State Universities.—With the land endowment by 
Congress (731) as a foundation, free colleges or universities, 
under state control, have been established in most of the 
states of the Union, and annual appropriations for their 
support are made by the state legislatures. In some states, 
these appropriations are sufficient to give the institution a 
high place among the colleges of the country, while in 
others the state university takes a grade but little above 
that of a high school or academy. Among the most dis¬ 
tinguished of the state institutions are the Michigan Uni¬ 
versity, the Wisconsin University, Cornell University, partly 
established by the proceeds of the Agricultural College land 
grant (731), and the University of California. 

737. State Normal Schools.—A much more general pro¬ 
vision has been made for public normal schools than for 
state universities. This is probably owing to the fact that 
the immediate office of the normal school is to train teach¬ 
ers for the common schools. It is therefore naturally re¬ 
garded as an institution affecting essentially the character 
of these schools, sharing with them, thereby, the just esteem 
in which the common school is held. The first normal 
school in the United States was established at Lexington, 
Massachusetts, in 1839. It has since been removed to 
Framingham. Edmund Dwight, of Massachusetts, do¬ 
nated $10,000 in aid of the enterprise, on condition of the 
appropriation of a similar sum by the state. In 1886 there 
were in operation in the United States 117 public normal 
schools, with more than 1,000 instructors and over 21,000 
students. 


EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


371 



738. Leaders in Education. —As in other departments 
of civil affairs public sentiment has been largely formed 


1. Horace Mann. 2. Henry Barnard. 3. John Swett. 

and led by men of commanding powers and devotion to 















372 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


a cause, so, too, our educational systems have been founded 
and perfected through struggles led by great and wise and 
heroic men and women. In 1837 Horace Mann of Mas¬ 
sachusetts, began a career of effort and discussion, which 
has given impulse and character to all succeeding achieve¬ 
ments in education. Henry Barnard of Connecticut, in 
addition to distinguished services as an organizer of a 
model state system of schools for that state, began in 1855 
the work of collecting and publishing information from the 
several states of the Union and of Europe respecting com¬ 
mon schools, universities, normal, and other schools, and 
the methods of conducting them. This publication, con¬ 
sisting now of twenty-four huge volumes, issued largely at 
his own expense, is the most valuable repository of infor¬ 
mation on educational subjects in existence, and led to the 
establishment of the National Bureau of Education (732), 
of which Mr. Barnard was the distinguished first commis¬ 
sioner. J. P. Wickersham of Pennsylvania, Newton Bate¬ 
man of Illinois, and John Swett of California are among 
those who have gained national distinction as founders and 
directors of state systems of public instruction. The names 
of Charles Brooks and David P. Page shine in the history 
of normal schools, while Mary Lyon and Emma Willard 
will never be forgotten in connection with early efforts to 
secure the higher education of women. 

739. [Horace Mann was reared in the most straitened way on a 
small Massachusetts farm. In a letter to a friend he says: “ I do not 
remember the time when I began to work.” His father dying when 
Horace was thirteen years of age, he continued his life of severe toil 
and hardship till his twentieth year, when, having prepared for college 
by six months’ study, he entered Brown University. Upon his gradu¬ 
ation he studied law, and sprang rather than rose into eminence in his 
profession. As one of the Massachusetts House of Representatives 
and President of the Senate, he passed some years in political life, 
when he was elected Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of 
Education. He immediately withdrew from all other business and 
professional engagements, and his splendid career as the foremost 
educationist in the country began. In so little estimation was edu¬ 
cational work held at that time, that, with a single exception, his friends 


EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


373 


sought to dissuade him from undertaking it. Dr. Channing, however, 
wrote him: “ You could not find a nobler station. Government has 
no nobler one to give.” His voice was now heard in all parts of his 
state. One writer says of him that he poured out everywhere upon 
little audiences in country school houses, streams of eloquence, wit, 
and sarcasm that would have delighted senates. His zeal and radical 
views led to heated and exhaustive controversies with politicians, teach¬ 
ers, clergymen, and others, through which better views respecting the 
work of education were gained. Mr. Mann retired from this post in 
1848, to enter Congress as the successor of John Quincy Adams, but 
the impulse he gave to the work of educating the masses of the people 
is still felt throughout the country.] 

740. [Teachers’ Institutes and Conventions.—The voluntary gath¬ 
erings of teachers and others in institutes and conventions for' the dis¬ 
cussion of questions connected with educational work, were greatly 
stimulated by Mann and Page, and have become almost universally 
recognized as an important agency in giving efficiency to the public 
schools. So strong is this recognition that in some states funds have 
been appropriated by the legislature for their support. These gather¬ 
ings are both local and national. Nearly every county and state holds 
its annual convention of teachers, and the National Educational Asso¬ 
ciation now draws to its yearly assembly from 7,000 to 12,000 of the 
foremost teachers of the country. The national convention for 1888 
was held in San Francisco in July of that year. Educational journals, 
one or more of which are found in every state, some receiving legislative 
support, have also contributed much to the efficiency of the educational 
department of the government.] 

741. Higher Education.—The seven colleges of Revolu¬ 
tionary days have grown to nearly 400 institutions for higher 
education sustained mainly by private endowment, though 
the old colleges of Harvard, Yale (100), and Columbia 
(160) (now styled Universities), have never lost their pre¬ 
eminence, steadily keeping at the front with the march of 
years. Among the great institutions of modern endowment 
are Girard College, Philadelphia, named for its founder, 
Stephen Girard; Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennes¬ 
see, founded by Cornelius Vanderbilt, a New York capital¬ 
ist; and Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore. Vassar 
College of Poughkeepsie, New York, Wellesley College, Wel¬ 
lesley, Massachusetts, and Smith College, Northampton, 



374 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Massachusetts, are institutions of high rank, admitting only- 
women, but offering courses and giving degrees similar to 
those of colleges for men. 

742. [Special Schools.—Schools for training in manual arts have 
also been established in considerable numbers. The most distinguished 
are the Chicago Manual Training School, and those in connection with 
Washington University, St. Louis, Boston School of Technology, and 
Rose Technological Institute at Terra Haute, Indiana. The subject of 
joining work schools with the common and normal schools has, in recent 
years, been much discussed, and the practice to some extent adopted. 
Kindergarten schools for the training of children of tender age have 
been established in many large cities, mostly by private munificence; 
but in some, notably in St. Louis, they are made a part of the public 
school system.] 

2. Progress in Science. 

743. Geology.—Investigations in America have largely 
increased our knowledge of this subject. Extensive geo¬ 
logical surveys have been made by the states and by the 
general government. The more recent of these great sur¬ 
veys were made under the direction of J. W. Powell, in 
the canon of the Colorado River, J. V. Hayden, and G. M. 
Wheeler. The demonstration of the existence of an ice sheet 
covering the earth at one time, as far south as latitude 38° or 
40°, and of the theory that mountains are formed by being 
pressed together from the sides, instead of being pushed up 
from the center of the earth, are among the contributions 
to this science made by the scholars of the United States. 
Text-books on this subject, which are standard both in 
Europe and America, are by J. D. Dana of Yale College, 
and Joseph Le Conte of the University of California; and, 
in connection with this science as well as with Natural 
History, the name of Louis Agassiz, Professor of Geology 
and Zoology at Harvard University, is familiar to the whole 
civilized world. 

744. Physics.—The forces of nature drive most of the 
machinery of the world, and do nearly all its work. Amer¬ 
ican scholarship has added greatly to our knowledge of 
them. The discoveries of Franklin respecting the force 


EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


375 





that we call electricity, laid the early foundation of all that 
has been accomplished throughout the world by its aid. 
The splendid re¬ 
searches of Joseph 
Henry, of the Smith¬ 
sonian Institute, first 
established the fact 
that electricity may 
be sent along wires 
to act as power in 
the operation of ma¬ 
chinery, and upon 
this Morse (524) has 
built the telegraph, 
and Bell and Edison 
have constructed the 


Henry. 


Agassiz. 


telephone. The gen¬ 
ius of Brush and 
Edison has applied 
this property also in 
the production of 
electric light (727). 
What we know of 
tides, and ocean and 
atmospheric cur¬ 
rents, has also been 
largely contributed 
by the scholars of 
our own country. 


745. The study of the stars has received much atten- 
tion in the United States, and progress in astronomical 













376 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


science during the past century has been nowhere greater 
than here. In the eighteenth century Benjamin Franklin 

and David Rittenhouse 
| of Philadelphia, and 
John Winthrop of 
Harvard College, made 
important observations 
of planetary move¬ 
ments. During the first 
half of the present cen¬ 
tury a great grandson 
of Franklin, A. D. 
Bache, and others in 
charge of the United 
States Coast Survey, 



kept astronomy alive 
by their studies and 
observations. Gov¬ 
ernment expeditions 
to South Ameri¬ 
can countries for 
astronomical obser¬ 
vations, under Lieu¬ 
tenant Gilliss of the 
United States Navy, 
and B. A. Gould, 
have also added 
much to this science. 

L. M. Rutherford and 
Henry Draper of New York, within the last few years have 


Holden. 
























EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. 


377 


applied the methods of photography to the study of the 
heavenly bodies, which has placed many of the results of 
the most powerful telescopes directly before the eyes of the 
people, through pictures that can be effectively displayed 
by the magic lantern. 

[The great observatories of the country are the Harvard College Ob¬ 
servatory; the United States Naval Observatory at Washington; Ann 
Arbor Observatory; Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York; Wash¬ 
burn Observatory, Madison, Wisconsin; and Lick Observatory, on 
Mount Hamilton, California. The most distinguished directors in 
charge of these observatories have been G. P. Bond, and E. C. Picker¬ 
ing of Harvard, F. Bruennow of Ann Arbor, B. A. Gould of Dudley, 
J. C. Watson of Washburn, and E. S. Holden of Washburn and Lick. 
S. C. Walker, J. S. Hubbard, J. H. C. Coffin, S. Newcomb, and A. Hall, 
of the Naval Observatory, deserve a high place in the history of Ameri¬ 
can Astronomy.] 


378 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 

1520-1850. 

Settlement of California. 

For Explanation. —Padre; neophyte; peso; guerrilla; mesa; ranch- 
eros. 

To he Pronounced. —Junipero Serra (hu-mp'e-ro ser'ra); pe'so; Pe- 
rou§£; ran-che'ro; Sut'ter; mes'a; Maz-at-lan; San Pas-quaF; San Lu'is 
Obis / po; Do-lo'res; San Juan (hoo'an); San Buenaventura (san-bwa- 
na-ven-to6-ra); a-yun-ta-mi-en'to. 

1 . 

746. California was planned by nature to be a vigorous 
and generous state. Other states may look upon broader 
lakes and greater rivers, but none view a wider variety of 
scenery in ocean, mountain, bay, river, and plain—all 
arranged on a grand, impressive plan. In geological his¬ 
tory the Pacific slope is younger than the Atlantic, yet 
equally interesting in every feature of scientific study. Our 
state is young among the sisterhood, but already has a his¬ 
tory that every citizen should appreciate. 

747. Name and Early Exploration.—The name Cali¬ 
fornia originated in a popular Spanish romance, published 
as early as 1520, in which it was applied to a fabulous 
island “near the Indies, and also near the Terrestrial Para¬ 
dise.” Followers of Cortez probably applied the name to 
the peninsular of Lower California, with which they became 
acquainted. We have already noticed the visits of Spanish 
(31) and English (36) navigators to the California coast in 
the sixteenth century. The Spaniards made another ex¬ 
ploring expedition in 1602-3. For a century and a half 
afterwards nothing was done toward the exploration of Cali¬ 
fornia. 

748. The Franciscans.—Jesuits accompanied Spanish 
conquerors in Mexico and South America, as they did 


SETTLEMENT OF CALIFORNIA. 


379 


French explorers in the Mississippi valley (176). In 1767, 
however, they were expelled from Spanish provinces, the 
Franciscans taking their places. Spain had considerable 
commerce with the East Indies, and desired a good harbor 
on the Pacific coast of America, as a stopping place for sup¬ 
plies and repairs. This desire, joined with the zeal of the 
Franciscans for the conversion of the natives, led to further 
exploration and the occupation of California. 

749. First Settlement.—In 1769 four expeditions were 
dispatched from Mexico for San Diego Bay, two by land 
and two by sea. Either course was slow and difficult; the 
water expeditions having to work against adverse winds 
and currents, and suffering from scurvy; the land parties 
having neither road nor guide. The first arrival was by 
ship (April 11th, 1769). All four parties having arrived, 
the mission of San Diego was founded (July 16th, 1769), 
the beginning of our oldest city. 

750. [Leaders.—These expeditions were military and ecclesiastical 
combined. The military forces were under the command of Gaspar de 
Portala, who had been appointed Governor of California, the first of the 
Spanish governors. The head of the ecclesiastics was Father Junipero 
Serra, whose name is famous in the early history of California. A 
priest of the most zealous determination, his perseverance against toil 
and suffering would not permit failure.] 

751. Discovery of San Francisco Bay.—From San Diego 
an expedition under Portala set out northward to reach 
Monterey Bay, of which something had been learned from 
the early voyagers. The expedition went past Monterey 
Bay without knowing it, and finally reached the coast a 
little south of the Golden Gate. A detachment of soldiers 
w r hile hunting, having climbed the hills, beheld the great 
bay, which by this discovery became known to Spaniards 
and the world, receiving the name San Francisco Bay in 
honor of the founder of the Franciscan order. 

[The eastern shore of the bay was explored in 1772 and the San Joa¬ 
quin River discovered the same year.] 


380 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


752. Missions.— The Fran¬ 
ciscan plan for converting 
Indians included the build¬ 
ing of churches, around 
which the Fathers lived, in¬ 
structing the Indians in the 
faith and requiring them to 
labor and live in the ways 
of civilization. These estab¬ 
lishments, called missions, 
are the chief feature of the 
colonization of California. 
The mission padres were 
earnest, devout men, devot¬ 
ing themselves to their work 
of superintendence with a 
singleness of purpose that insured success. 

[By 1780 sixteen mission priests were the spiritual rulers of some 
3,000 native converts. By the end of the century there were eighteen 
missions with forty padres and a neophyte population of 13,500. Crops 
of from 30,000 to 75,000 bushels per year were by this time produced in 
the territory, and there were 70,000 horses and cattle, while the mission 
buildings and other property were valued at a million pesos.'] 

753. [Principal Missions. —The missions founded by Father Serra 
were as follows: San Diego, 1769; San Carlos de Monterey, 1770; San 
Antonio (near Monterey), 1771; San Gabriel, 1771; San Luis Obispo, 
1772; Dolores (San Francisco), 1776; San Juan Capistrano, 1776; Santa 
Clara, 1777; San Buenaventura, 1782. His followers in the work 
founded ten more: Santa Barbara, 1786; San Purissima (Lompoc Val¬ 
ley), 1787; Santa Cruz, 1791; Soledad, 1791; San Jos6, 1797; San Juan 
Bautista, 1797; San Miguel, 1797; San Fernando Rey, 1797; San Luis 
Rey de Francia, 1798; Santa Inez, 1804.] 

754. Pueblos. —The Spanish scheme of colonizing Cali¬ 
fornia included, besides the religious establishments, the 
foundation of towns as business and military centers. The 
arm of the government was extended over the early mis¬ 
sions, and each one had a presidio or military station close 





SETTLEMENT OF CALIFORNIA. 


381 


by. Several towns, or pueblos, also were founded inde¬ 
pendent of the missions. The first of these was San Jose, 
founded in 1777. Los Angeles was second, founded in 1781. 

755. [Government of Pueblos.—The pueblos were towns main¬ 
taining local civil government independent of church or military rule. 
Their chief officer was called an Alcalde. He was elected by the people 
annually, and it was his duty to maintain order and administer justice. 
Large towns had three alcaldes, and these with six or eight subordinate 
officers formed an ayuntamiento, or town council.] 

756. [Visitors from Other Nations.—La Perouse, a Frenchman, vis¬ 
ited California in 1786, and Vancouver, an English navigator, in 1792, 
and both gave descriptions of the land to Europeans. A Boston ship, 
the Otter , obtained wood and water at Monterey in 1796. The Russians 
extending exploration from the Pacific shore of Asia down the Pacific 
shore of America, established a colony at Sitka. In 1806 a Russian 
ship came down from Sitka, and obtained provisions at San Francisco. 
(Read Bret Harte’s poem, “ Concepcion de Arguello.”)] 

757. [Russian River Settlement.—In 1812 a company of Russians 
made a settlement on the coast a little north of the mouth of the Rus¬ 
sian River. A fort was built, and a military settlement carrying on 
trade with the Indians was maintained until 1841. Although this lodge¬ 
ment was resented by the Spaniards, there was never any violence.] 

758. The change to Mexican rule upon the independence 
of Mexico (464) in 1822 caused no commotion in California. 
A convention of California officers assembled at Monterey 
and assented to the new government of Mexico. In 1823 a 
provincial legislature, summoned by authority of Mexico, 
elected Don Luis Arguello first of Mexican governors of 
California. 

Spanish Governors of California. 


Gaspar de Portala (Gas-par' da Por-ta/la). 1767-1771 

Felipe de Barri (Fa-li'pa da Bar'r'i). 1771-1774 

Felipe de Neve (Fa-Ti'pa da Na/va.). 1774-1782 

Pedro Fajes (Pa/dro Fa/hes.). 1782-1790 

Jose Antonio Romea (Ho-sa/ An-to'ni-o Ro-ma/a). 1790-1792 

Jose J. de Arrillaga (Ho-sa/ J. da A-rr'il-ya/). 1792-1794 

Diego de Borica (Di-a'go da Bo-r'i'ca). 1794-1800 

Jose J. de Arrillaga. 1800-1814 

Jose Arguello (Ho-sa/ Ar-gual-yo).1814-1815 

Pablo Vincent de Sola (Pa'blo Vi-c6n-ta da So'la).1815-1822 












382 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


2 . 

Under Mexican Rule. 

759. Government of California.—From 1822 till 1831 
affairs in California went on quietly under the name of the 
Mexican government. Californians, however, did not feel 
dependent on Mexico, and, as Mexico grew into a republic, 
a spirit of independence was developed in California. This 
local spirit strengthened rapidly from 1831 to 1846. This 
period is distinguished by jealousy of Mexican government, 
and by political feuds between rival communities of Cali¬ 
fornians centered around Monterey in the north and Los 
Angeles in the south. The feuds were always settled with¬ 
out bloodshed. 

760. Secularization of the Missions.—The mission pa¬ 
dres exerted themselves to weaken Mexican power in Cali¬ 
fornia. Mexico retaliated by confiscating their property to 
the government and transferring their Indian wards to mili¬ 
tary care. This took place gradually from 1834 to 1837, and 
is known as the secularization of the missions. Many of 
the missions fell into decay. The Indian converts relapsed 
into their old ways of living, and only the mission build¬ 
ings, or their ruins, now remain to tell us of the work of 
the Fathers. 

761. California Life.— The white population of California (in 1846 
about 1,000) represented chiefly decendants of Spanish lineage. Many 
California families were of pure Castilian blood. The leading business 
of the country was cattle raising for hide and tallow, which were sold 
to American traders on the coast. Hides were the usual money of the 
country, passing at the uniform rate of two dollars apiece. Land was 
held in large tracts, called ranchos , not definitely bounded, but distin¬ 
guished by name and located by natural landmarks. The rancheros 
lived an easy, unprogressive life, giving much jtime to festivities and 
much attention to gay and tasteful dress. All travel was on horseback. 
Without exception Californians were skillful riders, natural musicians, 
and graceful dancers. They were intelligent, quick witted, brilliant in 
conversation, but had no great endurance to maintain a cause or to 
resist moral temptation.] 


SETTLEMENT OF CALIFORNIA. 


383 


762. Americans in California before 1846.—American 
whaling ships appeared in the Pacific early in the century. 
Regular trade with California began in 1822 and grew rap¬ 
idly. Hunters and trappers began to make their way over¬ 
land into California as early as 1826. Between 1839 and 
1846 a settlement of Americans grew up in the Sacramento 
Valley, of which Sutter’s Fort was the nucleus. 

763. [Captain John A. Sutter was of Swiss family and a native of 
Germany. Having come to the United States and become a citizen, he 
came to California in 1839. Two years later he gained title, through the 
Mexican government, to a large tract of land on the American and Sac¬ 
ramento Rivers. He raised grain, employing Indians as laborers, and 
prospered for a time.] 

764. [Thomas 0. Larkin was a native of Massachusetts, who came 
to California in 1832 and established himself as a trader at Monterey. 
In 1844 our government made him Consul, the first and last man to fill 
that office in California. He had considerable influence with Califor¬ 
nians, which he used in preserving good will between them and Ameri¬ 
cans. His letters to home newspapers helped his countrymen to a 
knowledge of California.] 

765. [The Donner Party is the name by which a company of some 
eighty persons is remembered, which set forth across the continent for 
California in 1846. They fell behind in crossing the great plateau, and 
winter came upon them in the midst of the Sierras. Their cattle were 
lost in a great snowstorm, and with only the shelter of huts a terrible 
struggle against cold and starvation followed. Twenty-two of the party 
tried to get through the snow to Sutter’s Fort, but only seven succeeded. 
There were successive relief expeditions from the valley, but not until 
the snows were melting were the few survivors of the party rescued 
from the mountains.] 

766. John C. Fremont, born in Georgia in 1813, and 
educated as an engineer, was commissioned in the United 
States army and employed in 1842 to explore the passes of 
the Rocky Mountains, with a view toward finding an over¬ 
land route to the Pacific. He devoted several years to this 
enterprise, first exploring the region of Great Salt Lake, and 
entering California through the Sierras at the headwaters 
of the American River in the winter of 1843-4. Having 
returned with the results of his important work, Fremont 


384 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

was again dispatched for California in 1845, to explore more 
thoroughly the region along the coast. He reached Sutter’s 
Fort with about sixty men early in 1846, and obtained per¬ 
mission from Jose Castro, at the head of the California 
military department, and living at Monterey, to make ex¬ 
plorations in the San Joaquin Valley. This permission was 
withdrawn after Fremont was already on his way south¬ 
ward; and rumors of intended attack caused Fremont to 
intrench his party upon a peak about thirty miles from 
Monterey. No attack being made, Fremont turned north¬ 
ward toward Oregon. 


Mexican Governors of California. 

Luis Arguello (Lu-is' Ar-gual'yo). 1823-1825 

Jose Maria de Echeandia (Ma-rr'a da E-chan-dFa) .... 1825-1831 

Manuel Victoria (Man-u-61 Vic-td'ri-a). 1831-1832 

Pio Pico (Pi'o Pi'co). 1832-1833 

Jose Figueroa (Ho-sa Fi-gua-ro'a). 1833-1835 

Jose Castro (Ho-sa/ Cas'tro). 1835-1836 

Nicolas Gutierrez (Ni-co-las' Gu-ti-a/rres). 1836-1836 

Mariano Chico (Ma-ri-a'no Chi'co).. 1836-1836 

Nicolas Gutierrez. 1836-1836 

Juan B. Alvarado (HuarF B. Al-va-ra/do). 1836-1842 

Manuel Micheltorena (Mi-chel-td-ra'no). 1842-1845 

Pio Pico. 1845-1846 


3. 

American Conquest of California. 

767. A desire on the part of the United States to acquire 
possession of New Mexico and California was well under¬ 
stood both in the United States and Mexico, after the an¬ 
nexation of Texas. At the outbreak of the Mexican war 
the United States was represented in California by a con¬ 
siderable number of resident citizens, by Fremont’s ex¬ 
ploring party, and, shortly after the declaration of war, 
by warships commanded by Commodore Sloat. Between 
these representatives there was no common plan of action, 
except the idea that California was foreign soil, which it 













SETTLEMENT OF CALIFORNIA. 


385 


would be a great advantage to the United States to acquire. 
All of these parties acted on their own responsibility, for 
the most part, for Washington was a distant place from 
which to receive orders in those days. As results, posses¬ 
sion of California in the name of the United States was 
easily gained. But the native people of California, though, 
at the outset, nearly as cordial to Americans as to Mexicans, 
were made to regard Americans as invaders and to hate 
them as conquerors. 

768. The Bear Flag Affair. —The trouble between Fre¬ 
mont and Castro (766) had created rumors of war and 
intended conquest. Early in June a band of horses be¬ 
longing to the California government was seized by the 
Americans, and driven to Fremont’s camp. A company of 
Americans, without any clear plan or reason, went to Sono¬ 
ma, took possession of the town, surrounded the house of 
General Vallejo, and sent him with three other gentlemen 
as prisoners to Sutter’s Fort. The main party, remaining a 
short time at Sonoma, amused themselves with some wild 
proclamations about a new state, and with raising a new 
flag of cotton cloth, on which was stained with berry juice 
the rude figure of a bear. The affair has been dubbed 
“ The Bear Flag Revolution.” 

[Californians at once became alarmed and suspicious. Guerrilla war¬ 
fare was imminent, but prevented by the news of hostilities between the 
United States and Mexico.] 

769. Peaceful measures, only, were intended by the 
United States government. Commodore Sloat, command¬ 
ing the fleet in the Pacific, was ordered, in case of hostilities 
with Mexico, to gain possession of the ports, without a strug¬ 
gle, if possible. He arrived at Monterey July 1st, 1846, and 
six days later, he raised the flag of the United States, and 
took possession of the place, and the same thing was done 
at Yerba Buena (774). Sloat had no intention of making 

25-H 


386 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


war. On the contrary, he said that he came as the best 
friend of California. 

[Consul Larkin also was all the time active in trying to persuade 
eminent Californians to declare for independence, and then to come 
into the United States as Texas had done. These measures would 
doubtless have been more successful had not the doings in the north 
created suspicion and resentment.] 

770. Hostilities. —Castro withdrew from Monterey, and 
laying aside personal differences, joined with Governor Pico 
at Los Angeles, for defense. Fremont joined Sloat at Mont¬ 
erey. On July 23d, Sloat gave up his command to Com¬ 
modore Stockton. Stockton and Fremont began military 
operations on the assumed ground that Americans in Cali¬ 
fornia needed protection from the forces of Castro. Mov¬ 
ing southward they entered Los Angeles (August 13th), 
without resistance, Pico and Castro, despairing of peaceful 
terms or successful resistance, having set out for Mexico. 
A proclamation from Stockton declared the country the 
property of the United States, and military officers were 
immediately stationed in the principal towns. 

771. Revolt and Subjugation. —At Los Angeles was sta¬ 
tioned Lieutenant Gillespie. His management exasperated 
the native population. An armed force was gathered, and 
Gillespie was compelled to give up his post and to retreat 
northward. All the southern country was regained by its 
native owners. Stockton and Fremont set out at once to 
recover possession, being soon after joined by General 
Kearny (537), who had arrived in California with a small 
escort. After an unsuccessful effort by Kearny in Decem¬ 
ber, 1846, to dislodge the Californians at San Pasqual, San 
Diego County, the forces of Stockton and Kearny, on the 
ninth of January, 1847, attacked the Californians drawn 
up on the mesa north of the San Gabriel River. The Cali¬ 
fornians retreated northward and surrendered to General 
Fremont, receiving the most liberal terms. No further con¬ 
flicts occurred. 


SETTLEMENT OF CALIFORNIA . 


387 


772. [A serious quarrel ensued as to who had the right to govern 
the conquered land. Kearny had orders to enter California, and to act 
as military governor in case he should conquer it. Stockton would not 
recognize his authority, and appointed Fremont Governor. The title of 
General Kearny was in the end recognized by the government, but he 
did not long remain in the country.] 

773. The Interregnum.—This interval between the 
American conquest and the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 
(538), when California really became American, is a period 
that produced long-standing results. Many Americans of 
mixed classes came in during 1846 and 1847. Americans 
everywhere assumed control, the native population being 
content if not molested. Without regular civil government, 
with a quarrel between the military chiefs, in a new land 
where there was no clear distinction between what one 
might take for himself and what belonged to some one else, 
the new settlers had perplexing questions before them. 
There was wrong doing and discontent, but there was also 
solid work toward improvement, and a foundation for self- 
government. 

774. [San Francisco.—“ To the little cluster of houses that within 
about two years had grown up at Yerba Buena cove, was given, early in 
1847, by the consent of all concerned, and by the decree of the alcalde, 
the name that was its proper due—the historic name of San Francisco— 
which the bay, the mission, and the presidio had all long since borne. 
... By the census of 1847 there were 459 persons in the village, which 
still excluded from its limits the mission settlement. The little cluster 
of houses stood for the most part a little back from the low, curving 
beach of Yerba Buena cove. Telegraph Hill loomed up close upon the 
village on the north side. Southward the distance was greater along 
the lowlands to Rincon Hill.”] 

MILITARY GOVERNORS OF CALIFORNIA. 


Commodore John D. Sloat . . .. 1846. 

Commodore Robert F. Stockton. 1846-1847. 

Colonel John C. Fremont . . 1. 

General Stephen W. Kearny ) 

Colonel Richard B. Mason. 1847-1849. 

General Bennet Riley. 1849. 










HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



State Capitol. 


CHAPTER XXXVII. 

1850-1887. 

Our State. 


LIST OF GOVERNORS. 


f Peter H. Burnett. . 

. 1849-1851 

Frederick F. Low . 

. 1863-1867 

John McDougall . . 

. 1851-1852 

Henry H. Haight . . , 

. 1867-1871 

John Bigler . . . . 

. 1852-1856 

t Newton Booth . . 

. 1871-1875 

J. Neely Johnson . . 

. 1856-1858 

Romualdo Pacheco. , 

. 1875-1875 

John B. Weller . . . 

. 1858-1860 

William Irwin . . . 

. 1875-1880 

t Milton S. Latham . 

. 1860-1860 

George C. Perkins . 

. 1880-1883 

John G. Downey . . 

. 1860-1862 

George Stoneman . . 

. 1883-1887 

Leland Stanford . . 

. 1862-1863 

* Washington Bartlett 

. 1887 


Robert W. Waterman . . . 1887- 


775. The Constitutional Convention, which, in response 
to the call of General Bennet Riley, military governor, 
assembled at Monterey (September 1st, 1849), was com¬ 
posed largely of men who had been residents of California 
previous to the gold discovery. Three-fourths of the forty- 
eight members were native Americans, representing all sec¬ 
tions of the United States. Eleven were from New York, 


t Resigned. *Died in office. Democrats. Republicans. Know-Nothing. 
















OUR STATE. 


389 


and the constitution resembled th£t of New York in many 
features. 

[There were eight merchants, eleven farmers, fourteen lawyers, and 
fifteen from other professions.] 

776. Slavery and the state boundaries were the vital 
questions before the convention. The slave system was 
represented by a minority, skillfully led, however, by Wm. 
M. Gwin, recently come to California from Mississippi. As 
no favor was shown to the introduction of slavery at the 
time, a plan was formed to incorporate within the state 
Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, with the idea that so large a 
state would eventually afford an opportunity for division in 
the interest of slavery. The scheme failed, and the present 
state boundaries were adopted. With a natural boundary 
on the east, a magnificent frontage on the ocean, geographi¬ 
cal unity, and free labor, California entered the Union, pos¬ 
sessing extensive territory and natural resources that made 
sure the development of a great and powerful state. 

777. [The discovery of gold has been already noticed (544). Previ¬ 
ous to 1848 gold, in small quantities, had been found in California, but 
not much notice was taken of it. The discovery which led to the great 
excitement was made in January, 1848, near the site of the present town 
of Coloma, El Dorado County, where Captain Sutter was erecting a 
sawmill for getting out lumber from the forests on the mountains above. 
Sutter’s foreman, John W. Marshall, tried to enlarge the mill race by 
sending artificial floods through it. A few shining particles washed out 
of the soil were picked up by Marshall, tested, and found to be genuine 
gold. Marshall reported the news to Sutter. With a few others they 
tried to keep the discovery a secret, but without success. By June, San 
Francisco and the other towns were almost deserted, every one having 
gone to the mines. During the summer authentic reports of the gold 
region were sent East, and the great migration to California began.] 

778. The Gold Period— Gold mining was necessarily 
the chief pursuit for a few years. The life of the state cen¬ 
tered at San Francisco, which grew and spread marvelously. 
Sacramento, Marysville, and Stockton began their life as 
supply points for the miner and the gathering places of 
prospectors. The gold excitement brought together men 
from all parts of the world; and among them thieves, gam- 


390 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


biers, and ruffians were swept into California in the general 
rush. The period is full of activity and of change, of ro¬ 
mance, of heroism, and of wickedness, also. Laws, govern- 

779. [“ Miner ’ s Jus_ 
tice.”— In the mining 
camps crime was fre¬ 
quent, and dissipation 
excessive. There was 
recklessness in one’s 
own life, and careless¬ 
ness for that of another. 
To carry small arms 
constantly and to settle 
disputes with pistols, 
seemed for a time in 
danger of becoming uni¬ 
versal customs. The 
miners worked out 
principles for them¬ 
selves in the matter of 
mining, land, and water 
titles; at first, however, 
their only mode of 
dealing with criminal 
offenders was to catch 
the first offender they 
Governor Burnett. could, give him a form 

of trial, and then to ad¬ 
minister severe punishment. Regular courts, and jails for holding pris¬ 
oners, were of slow growth. Meanwhile these spasmodic efforts of 
popular justice often confounded the innocent with the guilty, and 
failed to protect the peaceful and restrain the wicked, as true govern¬ 
ment should.] 

780. [Progress in Mining.— The early miners came from other call¬ 
ings, and had to learn a new business by experience. The first mining 
was done along the lower courses of the present streams, but quickly 
pushed up into the high Sierras, where the gold-bearing gravel of for¬ 
mer deposits was often found exposed far above the beds of the present 
watercourses. In the richest gravel the gold could be collected by 
shaking in a pan. Devices for washing gravel, as the “rocker,” and the 
“long tom,” led to “sluice” mining, which required a steady stream of 
water, considerable work in preparation, and afforded work for many in 
cooperation. With sluice mining came greater permanence in mining 
enterprises, and steadier habits on the part of miners.] 


ment, and society did not exist. 





OUR STATE. 


391 


781. San Francisco, 1849-51 — In San Francisco occurred 
the great struggle of the early state for law and the protec¬ 
tion of life and property. Municipal government in San 
Francisco fell into the hands of men of the weaker or baser 
sort. The ruffian population was so numerous as to be for¬ 
midable to any power to suppress it. Mixture of races 
stirred up hatred that added to crime. A band of lawless 
men calling themselves “ The Hounds,” for a time main¬ 
tained themselves by open violence, robbing whom they 
would, but making Spanish-Californians and Chilenos their 
most frequent victims. The buildings of the young city 
were the cheapest wooden and cloth structures,. crowded 
together. Six times San Francisco was swept by disastrous 
fires. From 1851 onward, the business part of the city was 
more substantially built, and a vigorous fire department 
devoted itself successfully to prevention of conflagrations. 

782. First Vigilance Committee, 1851.—Although lynch 
law never prevailed in San Francisco as it did at the mines, 
yet irregular tribunals and rough-and-ready justice were 
resorted to there on two notable occasions. Having lost 
confidence in their officials, the people of San Francisco, in 
1851, formed what is remembered as the Vigilance Com¬ 
mittee. In this organization the respectable citizens united 
against the criminal class, which for three years had rev¬ 
eled in robbery and murder. They acted promptly, yet 
with calmness and firmness, and, by hanging a few, taught 
other ruffians a lesson that was not forgotten. 

783. Second Vigilance Committee, 1856.—San Francisco 
grew in wealth, but its politics fell into a bad condition. 
Elections were perverted by wholesale ballot-box stuffing, 
and the city government came under the control of rowdies. 
James King, editor of the Bulletin newspaper, boldly de¬ 
nounced the corruption of the city, and was shot and killed 
by a desperado named Casey. The people were wildly ex¬ 
cited. The Vigilance Committee was reorganized, enrolling 


392 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


thousands of members. Casey was taken from jail and 
tried, and was hanged on the day of King’s funeral. The 
committee maintained its organization for several months, 
devoting itself to the detection of election frauds, and the 
punishment of notorious criminals. 

[The Vigilance Committees were composed chiefly of business men, 
many of them then and afterwards among the most prominent citizens. 
Opponents of the committee of 1856 demanded that the punishment of 
criminals should be left to the constituted authorities. They were 
known as “ Law and Order Men.” Wm. T. Coleman, afterwards a lead¬ 
ing San Francisco merchant, was at the head of both committees.] 

784. Land Troubles.—The early uncertainty with regard 
to land titles (773) was not removed by the formation of the 
state. Previous ownership did not cause the miners any 
serious annoyance. They demanded and maintained as a 
principle that mineral land should be yielded to those that 
discovered and brought forth its ores. Thus came the prac¬ 
tice of locating “ mining claims.” Disputes arose when 
claims overlapped, but there was no contest with any origi¬ 
nal owners. The original land titles (known as Spanish 
or Mexican grants), applied chiefly to the more desirable 
valley lands, and here the land troubles began when men 
turned from mining to agriculture and the laying out of 
towns. A United States commission was appointed to ex¬ 
amine and pass upon all titles, and years of litigation have 
hardly yet set them at rest. 

785. [Squatter Riot at Sacramento, 1851.— There was serious trouble 
at Sacramento over land ownership. The site of Sacramento was a part 
of Sutter’s ranch, acquired by him from the Mexican government (763). 
His title passed by sale to the founders of the city. A numerous party, 
however, in 1851, proposed to disregard Sutter’s title, and to take and 
hold the land as theirs by right of American citizenship. This party, 
known as “ squatters,” actually organized for armed defense. In a col¬ 
lision with the county authorities, the Sheriff of Sacramento was killed. 
Excitement followed, during which the state militia was called upon, 
and firearms were shipped up from San Francisco. The squatters soon 
relinquished their pretensions.] 

786. State Politics.—Personal intrigue and quarrels 


OUR STATE. 


393 


occupy a large space in the early politics of the state. The 
first senators were John C. Fremont, who had returned to 
California in 1848, and William M. Gwin. Fremont drew 
by lot the short term (Constitution, Art. I., Sec. III.). John 
B. Weller, afterward Governor, succeeded him. As Gwin’s 
term drew to a close, there arose a man fully his equal in po¬ 
litical skill—David C. Broderick, born in Massachusetts, of 
Irish parents. The struggle between these two politicians 
came, later, to represent the struggle between North and 
South in national affairs. Broderick was a Democrat, but 
was opposed to southern aristocracy as represented in Gwin, 
and figured in California politics as the champion of free 
labor. 

787. [Broderick gained the senatorship in 1857. Two years later he 
was killed in a duel by David S. Terry, Chief Justice of the State Su¬ 
preme Court, the challenge having been given by Terry on account of 
certain utterances by Broderick in regard to the Lecompton Constitu¬ 
tion.] 

788. [California’s electoral vote has been cast as follows: In 1852, 
for Pierce and Graham, four; in 1856, for Buchanan and Breckinridge, 
four; in 1860, for Lincoln and Hamlin, four; in 1864, for Lincoln and 
Johnson, five; in 1868, for Grant and Colfax, five; in 1872, for Grant and 
Wilson, six; in 1876, for Hayes and Wheeler, six; in 1880, for Hancock 
and English, five, for Garfield and Arthur, one; in 1884, for Blaine and 
Logan, eight.] 

789. The War Period.—Though the sentiment in oppo¬ 
sition to the Union was in a minority, it was strong and 
bitter, its representatives being mainly men of southern 
birth and feeling. For this reason doubt had been cast 
upon the loyalty of the state to the general government. 
When, however, the call for volunteers was made, her people 
responded with the full number required. No draft (638) 
was ever needed. Some few went from California to sup¬ 
port the Confederacy, notably General Albert Sydney John¬ 
ston (612). California gold prevented the Union from ruin 
through the want of money, when excessive taxation (655) 
was making its fearful demands upon the business of the 
country. 


394 


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 


790. New Mines. —San Francisco was a center for mining 
enterprises even outside the state. In 1863 there was fresh 
excitement over treasure in Oregon and Idaho, and much 
money was spent in trying to find gold where there was but 
little. Later, silver mines in Nevada proved to be wonder¬ 
fully rich, and became the basis of vast mining operations. 
They formed the basis, also, of colossal stock operations, 
managed by brokers in San Francisco, resulting sometimes 
in the accumulation of large fortunes, and sometimes in 
their ruin. From 1875 onward rich mines were also de¬ 
veloped in San Bernardino and San Diego counties. 

791. [“ The Big Bonanza ” is the name by which is known a great 
body of rich silver ore, found in 1874 in mines of the Comstock Lode, 
Virginia City, Nevada. It gave a great impetus to mining stock specu¬ 
lation, which reached a crisis in 1875 with the temporary closing of the 
Bank of California, a leading San Francisco bank.] 

792. Labor Agitation. —The presence of Chinese labor¬ 
ers in California caused labor agitation to take the form of 
opposition to Chinese immigration. There were serious 
riots in San Francisco in 1877, Chinese laundries being 
demolished, and a wharf used by the Pacific Mail Steam¬ 
ship Company being burned. The steamship company 
was attacked because by its vessels Chinese laborers were 
brought to California. The riots were suppressed by the 
organization of a Citizens’ Safety Committee, similar to the 
Vigilance Committees. After the riots discontent took a po¬ 
litical turn. Crowds of laboring men and idlers gathered 
on Sundays upon unoccupied ground in front of the San 
Francisco City Hall, known as the Sand Lot. Here would- 
be politicians delivered harangues, and a “Workingmen’s 
Party” was developed, which spread its organization to all 
parts of the State, with the cry: “ The Chinese must go.” 

793. A new constitution was decided upon, in order to 
correct some defects in the old document. The choice of 
members of the constitutional convention came at the time 


OUR STATE. 


395 


when the Workingmen’s Party was at the height of its 
career, and many members were elected by it. The con¬ 
vention performed its work in the spring of 1879. Although 
warmly opposed, the new organic law was adopted by the 
people, and went into effect January 1st, 1880. 

794. Railroads.—The first railroad in California, known 
as the Sacramento Valley Railroad, joined Sacramento and 
Folsom, and was opened January 1st, 1856. The great rail¬ 
road enterprises of the state began, however, with the build¬ 
ing of the Central Pacific (681), and have continued under 
the direction and control of the men who undertook and 
carried to completion that gigantic work. The manner in 
which these enterprises have been conducted has, at times, 
provoked much discussion. Questions arising out of the 
management of railroads have entered to a great extent 
into the later political movements of the state, and were 
controlling factors in the formation of the Constitution of 
1879 (793). The railway service has steadily grown, how¬ 
ever, and has exercised a powerful influence in the rapid 
development of the state. 

795. Agriculture.—Early agriculture took, almost exclu¬ 
sively, the form of wheat raising, for which the great central 
valleys drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers 
afforded inviting territory. With the increase of wealth, 
fruit raising, for which greater capital is required, came 
into prominence, and has steadily and rapidly advanced 
as facilities for irrigation have increased and profits have 
been shown. The leading fruits are grapes, oranges, peaches, 
apricots, cherries, prunes, and olives. Olives are mainly 
converted into oil, while grapes largely take the commer¬ 
cial forms of raisins, wines, and brandies. 

796. Manufactures.—Early in the history of the state no 
attention was paid to the wool product, the hides and wool 
of slaughtered sheep being thrown away, and only the car- 


396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

cass used. In 1858 the first woolen mill was started. The 
industry grew in magnitude and its product improved in 
quality till California blankets came to lead all others in 
the markets of the eastern states. The manufacture of 
clothing has also grown to be a leading industry. The 
manufacture of leather is still more extensive, and its con¬ 
version into hoots and shoes, belting, harness, and saddlery 
has reached vast proportions. Great iron works in San 
Francisco have achieved national distinction in building 
machinery and ships, and many other branches of manu¬ 
facture have grown into importance. 

797. Public Education.—The foundation of the State 
School Fund was laid when the convention that framed the 
first Constitution (775) determined that the 500,000 acres 
of land granted by Congress to new states for internal im¬ 
provements should be set apart for the use of schools. The 
present state system, in its main features, was finally set¬ 
tled, and “rate bills” discontinued, during the adminis¬ 
tration of John Swett as State Superintendent from 1863 to 
1867, and largely by his efforts. It consists in free schools 
for primary and grammar grades, supported by the interest 
on money received from the sale of lands granted by the 
government, and from general tax by state and county. 
The shortest school term is six months in each year. The 
great features that distinguish the system in California 
from that of other states, are: 1. The apportionment to 
every district with twenty pupils or more, of a sum not less 
than $500 for teachers’ salaries and school library, and to 
every district with less than twenty pupils a sum not less 
than $400; 2. The compulsory use of ten per cent of this 
fund, not exceeding $50 per annum, in each district, for 
apparatus and library; 3. The support of teachers’ insti¬ 
tutes by public funds; 4. The preparation by the State Board 
of Education, consisting of the Governor, the State Super¬ 
intendent, and the Principals of the State Normal Schools, 


OUR STATE. 


397 


of the text-books to be used in the state, their manufacture 
by the State Printing Office, and their sale at cost to pupils 
of the public schools. The last of these provisions was 
added to the Constitution in 1884. 

798. [John Swett, whose good fortune it was to represent the edu¬ 
cational interests of the state as Superintendent of Public Instruction 
during the years that settled our present system, came to California 
from New Hampshire in 1852, and soon after began teaching in San 
Francisco. During the early and formative period of the state, his 
activity was aggressive and incessant. He is the author of a history 
of the School System of California, of several school text-books, and of 
a standard work on “ Methods of Teaching.” (See portrait, p. 371.) 

799. Normal Schools.—In 1862 the Legislature estab¬ 
lished a State Normal School in the City of San Francisco. 
In 1871 the school was removed to San Jose, where it still 
remains. Since 1873 it has been in charge of Mr. C. H. 
Allen, as Principal. In 1881 the Legislature established at 
Los Angeles a second State Normal School, of which Mr. 
Ira More was made Principal. A third State Normal 
School was provided for by the Legislature of 1887, and 
located at Chico, in Butte County. These schools have 
taken high rank among the institutions of the United States 
for the training of teachers. 

800. State University.—In 1868 the state legislature, 
carrying out a provision of the Constitution of 1850, availed 
itself of the rich congressional grants in aid of higher 
education, and of the donation by the College of California 
located at Oakland, of its entire property, and by an addi¬ 
tional appropriation of over $300,000, established at Oak¬ 
land a State University, which was afterward removed to 
Berkeley. Appropriations for various improvements were 
made by each subsequent legislature, until 1887, when it 
was permanently endowed with one cent on each $100 of 
the property of the state. Dr. Henry Durant, the founder 
and President of the College of California, became the first 
President of the state institution. D. C. Gilman, John Le 



398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Conte, W. T. Reid, E. S. Holden, and Horace Davis have 
successively filled the position. The University has six 
colleges, located in Berkeley, namely: The College of Let- 


Library Building—State University. 


ters, College of Agriculture, College of Mechanics, College 
of Mining, College of Civil Engineering, and College of 
Chemistry. The Colleges of Law, Medicine, Dentistry, and 
Pharmacy are located in San Francisco. 


[Important donations have been made at different times by private 
individuals. A medical college has been endowed by H. H. Toland, a 
law college by S. C. Hastings, and a professorship of moral philosophy, 
by D. O. Mills, all capitalists of San Francisco. H. D. Bacon, a capital¬ 
ist of Oakland, has also donated his art collection and library, and 
$25,000 towards the erection of the elegant library building that adorns 
the grounds. To this Michael Reese added $50,000 in aid of the library. 












OUR STATE. 


399 


A. K. P. Harmon donated a gymnasium. The greatest of all its private 
gifts, however, is the sum of $700,000 bequeathed by James Lick of San 
Francisco, to build, equip, and support an astronomical observatory. 
This has been located upon Mount Hamilton, in Santa Clara County. 
It is the best located observatory in the world, and is furnished with 
the largest and best telescope yet constructed. E. S. Holden is director, 
and S. W. Burnham, principal assistant.] 



801. Leland Stanford, Jr., University.—At Palo Alto, 
thirty miles south of San Francisco, the erection of build¬ 
ings for the most 
richly endowed uni¬ 
versity in the world, 
by a single gift, is 
now (1888) going 
on. The gift was 
made in 1885 by 
Leland Stanford, 
and his wife, Jane 
Lathrop Stanford, 
in memory of their 
only son, Leland 
Stanford, Junior, 
who died March 
13th, 1884. Theen- 
dowment consists 
of 83,200 acres of 

Leland Stanford. highly improved 

land, valued at $20,000,000, and the management is vested 
in a board of twenty-four trustees. The university is to be 
open alike to young men and young women, with special 
attention given to preparing students for such occupations 
as they may select, and with provision for an advanced 
course of study for graduates of other colleges. 


400 


APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX. 


EXPLANATIONS. 

[References are to paragraphs.] 


A 

abdicated (387), vacated; gave up. 
accessible (296), that could be 
reached. 

accession (178), addition. 
admiral (11), the commander-in¬ 
chief of a fleet. 

adventurer (25), one who seeks bold 
and novel enterprises with great 
risk ; (102), one moving anywhere 
on the chance of making a for¬ 
tune. 

agile (191), quick; nimble. 
alert (184), keenly watchful. 
Alexander (5), King of Macedon, 
and conqueror of the world; lived 
between 300 and IfiO years before 
Christ. 

alien (405), a foreign born resident 
of a country in which he is not a 
citizen. 

allegiance (78), fidelity; loyalty. 
alternative (252), choice between two 
things only. 

ambush (200), a place where ene¬ 
mies have concealed themselves for 
the purpose of surprising a foe. 
anarchy (268), political confusion; 

absence of government. 
arbitration (677), the hearing and 
deciding between parties, by per¬ 
sons selected by the parties them¬ 
selves. 

Aristotle (5), a Greek philosopher , 
who lived between 300 and JfiO 
years before Christ. 
armistice (536), a temporary cessa¬ 
tion of hostilities by agreement be¬ 
tween the powers. 

artisans (159), persons skilled in 
handcraft; mechanics. 
assumption (373), undertaking to 
pay. 


astrolabe (5), an instrument for 
noting the position of the stars — 
now disused. 

Austrian Succession (180), relating 
to the question of the succession of 
Maria Theresa to the Austrian 
throne. 

B 

bankrupt (124), one who cannot pay 
his debts. 

Barbary States (419), countries in 
the northern part of Africa, bor¬ 
dering on the Mediterranean Sea. 

barony (122), the estate appertain¬ 
ing to an English nobleman of the 
rank of Baron. 

base (206), bottom; foot, as base of 
the hill; (281), an area of country 
from which the movements of an 
army are made. 

belligerent power (593), entitled to 
the rights of war , but not inde¬ 
pendent. 

besiege (256), to hem in for the pur¬ 
pose of compelling a surrender. 

blazoned (6), adorned, embellished. 

blockade (421), to prevent entrance 
by stationing war ships in the way. 

borough (110), a district incorpo¬ 
rated for voting. 

burgess (110), the inhabitant of a 
borough. 

brunt (77), the greatest weight, or 
violenee. 

burly (400), of heavy figure. 

C 

cabinet (219), the select council or 
advisers of the king. 

Caesar (224), Roman General and 
Dictator , stabbed by Brutus and 
others , about 44 years before Christ. 






EXPLANATIONS. 


401 


calumny (396), false accusation; 
slander. 

cant (395), insincerity. 

capital (240), punishable by death. 

catastrophe (443), disaster; calam¬ 
ity. 

caucus (466), a meeting for the selec¬ 
tion of candidates for a political 
office. 

cavalry (287), troops on horseback. 

cede (349), to give up. 

Celtic (3), pertaining to the Celts, an 
ancient Asiatic race , formerly oc¬ 
cupying a great part of Central 
and Western Europe, and whose 
descendants are now found in Ire¬ 
land , Wales, the Highlands of Scot¬ 
land, and on the northern shores of 
France. 

chamberlains (375), officers having 
charge of the chambers of a noble¬ 
man or monarch. 

Chevy Chase (251), an ancient bal¬ 
lad, celebrating the overthrow of 
an English Earl who had invaded 
the territory of Earl Douglas of 
Scotland. 

Cincinnati (345), the name was taken 
from Cincinnatus, a Roman Em¬ 
peror , called from his farm to the 
head of the Roman Government 
and retiring again to his farm, 
after conquering the enemies of 
Rome. 

cloth of gold (6), cloth into which a 
fine gilt wire is woven, giving it the 
glittering appearance of gold. 

coinage (397), money made by stamp¬ 
ing pieces of metal, as gold, and sil¬ 
ver. 

commission (137), to give authority 
to. 

commissioner (186), a person to 
whom certain duties are committed 
by the person or government who 
employs him. 

common (223), belonging alike to 
all. 

compete (54), contend for place or 
possession. 

compromise (197), a settlement of 
a disagreement by yielding or giv¬ 
ing up something claimed by each 
party. 

concerted (407), planned together. 

conciliation (248), winning over to 
an agreement. 

26-H 


conciliatory (261), calculated or de¬ 
signed to win or pacify. 
conferred (56), conveyed or gave. 
confiscating (341), taking for the 
public use. 

Constantine (5), a Roman emperor, 
who established Christianity as the 
religion of Rome, in the third cen¬ 
tury. 

controversy (71), dispute. 
corsairs (419), pirates. 
corral (332), a yard for cattle. 
counter (187), opposite. 
cowed (330), made fearful; destroyed 
the courage of. 

coxswain (362), the one who steers in 
a boat. 

craftsmen (61), mechanics. 
cruiser (208), a ship of war, sailing 
back and forth on the ocean, in 
search of an enemy. 

Crusades (5), a military expedition 
undertaken by Christian govern¬ 
ments in the eleventh , twelfth , and 
thirteenth centuries, for the recov- 
ery of the Holy Land from the 
Mo hammedans. 

culmination (243), coming to a head; 
the outcome. 

D 

dead letter (91), without force; not 
to be regarded. 

defalcation (367), the taking of 
money for his own use by an officer 
having it in charge for others. 

De Medici (5), the name of a ruling 
family of Italy in the fourteenth, 
fifteenth, and sixteenth • centuries. 
Lorenzo, a prince of Florence and 
patron of Art, lived in the fifteenth 
century. (Read Lesson 113, Sec¬ 
ond Reader.) 

depreciation (342), falling off in 
value. 

depredations (51), robberies; plun¬ 
derings. 

detachment (249), a small body of 
troops taken from the main army. 
devastation (337), wasting; plunder¬ 
ing; ravaging. 
devised (157), planned. 
dialect (18), one of the branches of 
a language. 

dismantled (449), rendered unfit for 
service; disabled; deprived of its 
equipment for service. 
dissensions (103), disagreements of 
a violent character; strifes. 



402 


APPENDIX. 


dissolve (98) (223), to discontinue 
the session of. 

dispelled (26i), drove away. 
disposed (326), placed. 
diversified (458), varied. 
drenched (252), soaked. 
dubbed (466), entitled. 
duties (216), taxes on imported goods. 

E 

embodied (230), put into form or 
shape; given body. 
emigrant (61), a person removing 
from a country. 

emissary (201), an agent employed 
to do one thing while seeming to be 
engaged in something else. 
envoy (190), (391), a messenger sent 
by the government to transact spe¬ 
cial business with a foreign power. 
epidemic (397), any disease which 
affects numbers of persons at the 
same time. 

equipped (51), fitted up with things 
needed. 

era (152), a point of time from which 
succeeding years are numbered. 
ermine (6), a white fur taken from 
an animal of the same name. 
evasion (131), secret avoidance. 
executed (239), performed; carried 
out. 

executive (278), one who enforces 
laws or puts them into effect. 
expedient (233), advisable; desir¬ 
able. 

extortion (239), wrongful or forcible 
taking. 

extradition (516), the delivery by 
one nation to another of fugitives 
from justice. 

F 

fabled (25), unreal, fictitious. 
factions (74), parties violently op¬ 
posed. 

factious (73), given to heated oppo¬ 
sition to the government, or to the 
majority. 

fanatics (73), those who indulge wild 
notions of religion. 
fashion (116), sort, or kind. 
fatal compliance (231), a yielding 
that would bring calamity. 
ferment (71), tumult; disturbance. 
fervor (73), heat; excitement. 


feudal (114), pertaining to a system 
on which lands were to be granted 
on condition of military service to 
be rendered when called for. 
finances (219), funds; moneys. 
flagship (443), the ship that carries 
the commander of a squadron , and 
displays his flag. 
flank (187), on the side of. 
flash in the pan (249), old-fashioned 
muskets were fired by striking 
sparks with flint and steel into 
some loose powder in a little pan 
connected with the barrel. When 
it happened that this powder only 
flashed , and did not connect with 
that in the barrel the discharge 
was said to “ flash in the pan." 
flinch (47), shrink; draw back from 
pain or danger. 

foraging (293), roving about collect¬ 
ing food from the country wher¬ 
ever it can be taken. 
foray (202), a sudden attack for war 
or plunder. 

forfeited (93), lost the right to. 
franchise (58), any special privi¬ 
lege granted by government, as the 
elective franchise—the privilege of 
voting for public officers. 
freeholders (240), holders of lands. 
furlough (345), leave of absence 
from military duty. 
futile (298 ), failing of the intended 
effect. 

G 

gentlemen (102), Englishmen with¬ 
out a title of nobility, but with a 
coat of arms, and ranking next 
above the yeoman. 

Gibraltar of America (180), the 
point which protects the entrance 
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as 
Gibraltar protects that to the Medi¬ 
terranean. 

gorgeously (106), splendidly. 
grievous (245), hard to bear; pain¬ 
ful; afflictive. 

guerrilla (618), carried on by small 
parties under no general head. 

H 

harassed (277), disturbed; troubled. 
Hercules (5), a Greek hero, son of 
the God, Jupiter, celebrated for his 
wonderful achievements of strength 
and endurance. 




EXPLANATIONS. 


403 


Hessians (287), inhabitants of the 
German state of Hesse ( hess). 
Hotspur (435), a high-spirited , hot¬ 
headed fellow in Shakespeare'splay 
of Henry IV. and other plays. 
hulk (449), the body of a ship no 
longer fit for service. 

I 

identified (273), united in interest 
so that their cause was the same. 
immigration (126), the act of moving 
into a country; also the body of 
people who move into a country. 
immunity (58), freedom from obli¬ 
gation. 

impediment (49), obstruction; some¬ 
thing in the way of. 
imperious (156), hciughty , overbear¬ 
ing. 

impetus (223), motion or force of 
motion. 

impotent (307), weak. 
incorporation (56), the formation of 
a body by the union of individuals 
constituting in law one person. 
indecisive (286), slow to decide; hesi¬ 
tating. 

indictment (231), a formal accusa¬ 
tion of crime. 

installment (417), a payment , made 
at regular intervals , of a part of a 
total sum. 

instinct (84), natural tendencies or 
impulses. 

insurrection (137), a rebellion of the 
people against authority. 
intrepid (303), bold; fearless. 
itinerant (138), wandering; unset¬ 
tled. 

J 

Jaffa (5), ancient Joppa, a city of 
Palestine , on the western coast of 
the Mediterranean. 
joint stock company (56), a com¬ 
pany of persons united for busi¬ 
ness, to which each contributes a 
sum of money called stock. 
judicial (85), pertaining to the deci¬ 
sion of cases at law. 

L 

laconic (443), brief. 
league (246), an alliance or compact 
between states. 

levied (364), collected by assessment. 


letter of marque (591), a commis¬ 
sion granted to the commander of 
a private ship to seize the vessels 
of another nation in retaliation 
for an injury. 

libertine (102), one who leads a dis¬ 
solute life. 

Lincolnshire (59), a county in En¬ 
gland (shire means county). 
liveried (106), dressed in a garb pe¬ 
culiar to the servant of a particular 
nobleman. 
lore (5), learning. 

M 

magnanimous (346), honorable; lib¬ 
eral. 

malice (164), hatred; ill will. 
malignant (329), likely to produce 
death. 

maize (119), Indian corn. 
maneuver (281), a military move¬ 
ment to gain advantage of an 
enemy. 

manor (122), such part of a noble¬ 
man's estate as was kept for his 
own and his servants' occupation. 
maritime (26), having numerous 
seaports, and conducting com¬ 
merce largely on the seas. 
martial law (258), law imposed by 
military power. 

measures (215), means employed to 
accomplish a particular purpose. 
mediator (450), one who seeks to 
reconcile parties at variance. 
meditated (298), intended; thought 
to accomplish. 

memorial (226), a statement of facts 
accompanied by a petition; ( ), 

anything designed to preserve the 
memory of. 

menace (132), threat; danger. 
men of war (236), war ships. 
mercenary (307), hired for money. 
merchant marine (723), the body 
of a nation's shipping employed 
in commerce. 
mesa (770), table land, 
metropolis (182), the largest and 
most important town in a state or 
country. 

mileage (371), an allowance per mile 
made to officers traveling on duty. 
ministry (221), the persons who com¬ 
pose the council of the king, and 
conduct the government. 



404 


APPENDIX. 


Mohammedans (5), followers of 
Mohammed, a religious prophet, 
who lived in Arabia in the sixth 
and seventh centuries. 
monastic orders (176), living apart 
from the common concerns of life, 
and devoted to religious pursuits. 
monopoly (56), an exclusive right 
or power , shutting out all other 
persons. 

mortgaging (60), pledging. 

Moslem (419), Mohammedan (see 
p. 9.) 

museum (20), a collection of curi¬ 
osities in nature or art. 
mysterious (98), unexplained; not 
plain. 

N 

national securities (372), notes , 
bonds, or other obligations of the 
national government. 
naturalization law (405), a law to 
give foreign born persons the rights 
of a native , or citizen. 
negotiations (340), transactions of 
business. 

neophyte (752), a new convert. 
Nestor (356), a Grecian hero, dis¬ 
tinguished for courage, wisdom, 
and, eloquence. 

neutral (314), being on neither side. 
nicotine (109), an oily, colorless, 
poisonous liquid obtained from 
tobacco. 

niggardly (83), stingy; applied to 
soil, it means unproductive. 
nominal (151), in name only, not in 
reality. 

notable, worthy of notice. 
nucleus (79), central point about 
which a gathering is made. 

O 

obnoxious (330), offensive. 
official (230), one who holds an office. 
on parchment (178), merely in writ¬ 
ing, not actually. 
onset (206), sharp attack. 
ordeal (363), trial; test. 
ordnance (306), cannon. 
oriental (7), pertaining to Persia 
and Eastern Asia. 
original (186), first. 
ostentation (106), extravagant or 
excessive display. 


outlaws (240), persons not entitled 
to protection of law. 

P 

Padre (752), a priest or religious 
father in the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

pagans (3), those who practice the 
worship of idols. 

panic (304), sudden and violent 
fright without cause. 
parallel (184), running in the same 
direction; side by side. 
paralytic (466), one afflicted with 
palsy, or inability to control the 
movement of his muscles. 
paramount (459), above all others. 
parapet (260), a breastwork. 
paroles (328), promises of prisoners 
of war, on condition of being lib¬ 
erated, not to bear arms against 
their captors. 

partisan (396), shoiving unreason¬ 
able zeal for success of a party. 
patent (51), an official paper grant¬ 
ing rights and privileges. 
patrician (388), above the common 
people. 

pawn (11), to give as security. 
penal (172), pertaining to punish¬ 
ment or penalty. 

pennant (443), a long narrow piece 
of bunting, or flag cloth, worn at 
the masthead of war ships. 
per diem (371), for a day. 
persecution (59), state of being vexed 
or harassed. 

peso (752), the Spanish dollar of ex¬ 
change. 

pillaged (321), robbed; stolen. 
platform (221), statement of politi¬ 
cal principles. 

policy (248), settled method. 
pompous (174), boastful; big sound¬ 
ing. 

popular (94), by the people. 
postal (173), belonging to mail ser¬ 
vice. 

preamble (233), introduction. 
press (220), a term applied to the 
whole body of newspapers in a 
country taken together. 
pretensions (186), claims. 
prevailingly (163), mostly. 
prime minister (232), the minister 
of highest rank in the council of 
the king. 



EXPLANATIONS. 


405 


privateers (208), ships fitted out by 
private persons with the authority 
of government to cruise during 
war against the commerce of its 
enemy. 

profligate (324), openly and shame¬ 
lessly immoral. 

propagate (68), spread; promote the 
growth of. 

property qualification (96), the pos¬ 
session of property as a condition 
of voting. 

provincial (202), pertaining to a 
province, or a region dependent on 
a distant government. 
provisional (538), temporary; pro¬ 
viding for present need. 
punctilious (363), very nice or exact 
in forms of ceremony. 

Q 

quarters (234), lodging places. 
quorum (362), the number necessary 
to transact business. 

R 

raged (229), were violent. 
raids (236), sudden fierce attacks for 
murder or plunder. 
rancheros (760), owners and occu- 

C 's of ranches or large tracts of 

. 

rancorous (521), marked by hatred 
or extreme ill feeling. 
ranking (535), of highest rank; also 
of rank higher than another. 
ratify (361), confirm; give sanction 
to what has been done by an agent. 
ravages (264), waste; havoc. 
redeem (343), to purchase back. 
redress (235), remedy; relief. 
redressed (245), remedied; relieved. 
reference to a record (275), looking 
to a record in books or papers for 
the facts needed. 
reflections (185), incidents of. 
refugee (393), one fleeing from a 
country to escape persecution. 
regulars (281), soldiers enlisted for 
a permanent army, distinguished 
from militia , who are enlisted for 
a short time only. 

representative (243), representing 
the people through persons chosen 
for the purpose. 

representative assembly (114), one 
made up of persons who are elected 
by the people to represent them. 


reprieved (153), delayed punishment 
of 

republican (254), in the form of a re¬ 
public, or government in which the 
highest power is exercised by repre¬ 
sentatives elected by the people. 
resident councilors (58), council¬ 
ors residing in the colonies. 
retaliate (127), to repay injury by 
injury. 

revealed (18), made known. 
revenue cutter (217), an armed ves¬ 
sel employed to prevent smuggling. 
revision (219), amendment or 
change. 

rival (141), one seeking to gain the 
same object as another. 
royalist (112), a person in sympathy 
with the king as against Crom¬ 
well's party. 

S 

sable (6), a black fur from the sable. 
sail (436), vessels; ships. 
sally (338), a sudden attack made by 
besieged troops upon the besiegers 
outside the fortifications. 
Salzburgers (131), Protestants from 
the Duchy of Salzburg, Austria, 
whither they were driven by the 
Catholics. 

San Salvador (13), saint of rescue: 

Salvador, redeemer. 
satirized (70), censured with severity; 
ridiculed. 

savannahs (178), plains destitute of 
trees and covered with grass , differ¬ 
ing from a prairie only in the zone 
they occupy. 

scale (206), to climb as by steps. 
scruple (236). to doubt the right. 
scrutiny (363), inquiry; examina¬ 
tion. 

sedition (405), relating to those who 
stir up discontent against the gov¬ 
ernment. 

seer (218), a prophet. 

• sentries (206), soldiers placed on 
guard or watch. 

siege (137), the placing of an army 
around a fortified place to compel 
it to surrender. 

signal (152), a sign; a foreshadow¬ 
ing. 

signature (239), name of a person 
signed with his own hand to some 
writing. 



406 


APPENDIX. 


smuggling (91), importing or export¬ 
ing goods secretly without paying 
the duties , or contrary to law. 
sound (363), of strong mind and 
judgment. 

sovereign (90), superior to all others; 
chief. 

Spanish succession (180), relating 
to the question of who should he 
king of Spain. 
spare (191), thin in flesh. 
squadron (180), a part of a fleet of 
ships under the command of one 
officer. 

stages (176), degrees of progress. 
stanch (404), firm in principle. 
stand (283), position. 
state (6), condition. 
stealthily (249), secretly. 
stickler (400), one who contends for 
a trifling thing. 

struck root (63), became established. 
stupendous (178), immensely large. 
subsist (244), support; feed. 
substantially (221), in reality; 
really. 

subversion (243), overturning. 
successively (11), one after another. 
Sultan of Versailles (178), an allu¬ 
sion to Louis XIV., king of France, 
whose seat of government was at 
Versailles, near Paris. 
superstitious (19), full of idle fan¬ 
cies in regard to religion and the 
meaning of events. 
swooped (193), came suddenly and 
fiercely. 

T 

tactics (445), the science and art of 
arranging troops in order for battle, 
and of performing military move¬ 
ments. 

tariff's (216), charges or taxes on im¬ 
ported goods. 

Tarquin (224), the last king of Rome, 
about 500 years B. C., driven from 
the throne by Lucius Junius Bru¬ 
tus. 

temerity (59), boldness. 
threatened (286), placed in danger. 
tide water (463), water flowing from 
the ocean inland up the streams 
which empty into it. 
tinged (376), impregnated; affected. 
tithing man (168), a peace officer; 

an under Constable. 
title (348), a right to hold in posses¬ 
sion. 


toast (234), a sentiment, usually 
honored by drinking. 
tradition (95), that which is repeated 
from father to son for several gen¬ 
erations, without being written. 
traversing (411), crossing; traveling 
over. 

treason (319), an attempt to betray 
or overthrow one's country. 
tribunals (677), courts. 
tumults (235), uproars; brawls. 
turbulent (73), disposed to make dis¬ 
turbance. 

turnpike (397), a road rounded up 
in the middle by scraping the dirt 
from the sides to the center. 
turquoise (6), a bluish-green min¬ 
eral brought from Persia, and 
much esteemed as a gem. 

U 

unanimous (215), without opposi¬ 
tion; as one. 

upland (311), occupying the higher 
land near the Alleghany mount¬ 
ains. 

V 

vague (348), not clear; uncertain in 
meaning. 

vain (307), without result. 
vanguard (62), those who march in 
front. 

Venetian (6), belonging to Venice. 
veto (96), to prevent enactment by 
withholding assent to. 
viceroy (11), ruler in place of the 
king, and by his authority. 
vigilant, keenly watchful. 

W 

windrows (259), hay raked up into 
a roll. 

wizard (98), the masculine of witch; 
a man in league with evil spirits 
to do mischief. 
wreaked (325), inflicted. 

Y 

yeomanry (82), in England a body 
of people owning land and farm¬ 
ing it, next in rank below the 
gentry. 

Z 

zigzag (259), having short sharp 
turns this way and that. 



PRONUNCIA TIONS. 


407 


PEONUNCIATIONS. 


Al-gon 7 quin. 

Amerigo Vespucci (ah-ma-re 7 go 
ves-poot 7 chee). 

A-pa 7 che. 

Ar-gall. 

Ar 7 is-t6t-le. 

Ar-kan 7 sas. 

Ar 7 yan. 

Asia (a'she-a). 
as 7 tro-labe. 

Ayllon (il-yon 7 ). 
A- 3 r un-ta-mi : en 7 to. 

Az 7 ores. 

Ba-ha/ma. 

Bal-bo 7 a. 

Beaufort (bu'fort). 

Beausejour (bo-se-zhoor 7 ). 
Berkeley (berk 7 le). 

Berlin. 

Bo-de'ga. 

Bon-hdmme 7 . 

Bos 7 po-rus. 

Bowdoin (bo 7 den). 

Bra-zil 7 . 

Bue 7 (bo)na Vis 7 ta. 

Cab 7 ot. 

Ca-briklo. 

Ca 7 diz. 

Cam-ba-lu 7 . 

Car-ri-bees 7 .' 

Cartier (kar-te-a 7 ). 

Cas 7 si-mir. 

Cas-t'ile 7 . 

Ca-taw 7 ba. 

Cath-ay 7 . 

Chakco. 

Cha-pukta-pee. 

Che 7 raw. 

Ches a-peake. 


Chickahominy (chik-a-hom 7 e-ne). 
Chi-hua-hua (che-wa 7 wa). 
Cho-wan 7 . 

Christendom (kris 7 n-dum). 
Christina (kris-tee 7 na). 

Cipango (se-pang 7 o). 

Col-o-ra/do. 

Con 7 stan-tine. 

Con-tre 7 ras. » 

Cor-te-re-al 7 . 

Cor 7 tez. 

Courant (koo-rant 7 ). 

Da Ga 7 ma. 

Darien (da 7 re-en). 

De Bienville (deh be-an 7 vel). 
D’Estaing (des 7 tang). 

De (deh) Gourgues (goorj), Dom- 
i-nique 7 (neek). 

De Grasse. 

De Kalb. 

De Monts 7 (mong). 

Denys (deh-ne')- 
De So 7 to. 

Dieskau (dees 7 kow). 

Din-wid 7 die. 

Do-lo're§. 

Du Quesne (du kane). 

Elbe. 

Eu-ro-pe 7 an. 

Fe-re 7 lo. 

Flor 7 en-tine. 

Frob 7 ish-er. 

Fron-te-nae 7 . 

Fukton. 

Gan'geg. 

Gen 7 o-a. 

Gist. 

Gor'geg. 




408 


APPENDIX. 


Gua(gau)da-lupe Hi-daPgo. 
Gus-ta/vus. 

Hayti (ha/te). 

Huguenots (hu 7 ge-nots). 

Il-li-nois / 

Iroquois (Ir 7 o-quoy). 

Itajuba (ee-ta-hoo 7 ba) 

Jean (zhon) Nicot (ne-ko / ). 

Joliet (zho-le-a 7 ). 

Juan de Fuca (hoo 7 an da foodta). 
Kanawha (ka-naw 7 wa). 

Khan. 

Kusciusko (kos-se-us 7 ko), Thad 7 
de-us. 

Koszta (koz 7 ta). 
lam 7 ent-a-ble. 

Laudonniere (lo-don-yare 7 ). 

Le Boeuf (leh buf). 

Leisler (lis / ler). 

Leyden (li'den). 

Loy-oda. 

Ma-drid 7 . 

Ma-gePlan. 

Ma-hon 7 . 

Marquette (mar-ket 7 ). 

Maz-at-lan 7 . 

Medici (med 7 e-chee). 

Menendez (ma-nen'deth). 
mes 7 a. 

MiPan. 

M odianFme-dang. 

Mo-l'Pno del Key' (ra). 

Nar-va 7 ez (etli). 

Navarre (na-var 7 ). 

New Orde-ans. 

Nez Perce (nay per 7 cy). 
nie 7 o-tme. 

Nu-e 7 9 e§. 

O'gle-thorpe. 

Pa/los. 

Pan-a-ma 7 . 

Pow-hat-an 7 . 

Pavia (pa-vee 7 a). 

Pe-rouse 7 (rcioz). 


pe 7 so. 

Pis-caPa-qua. 

Pi-zar 7 ro. 

Po-ka-no'ket. 

Ponce de Leon (pon 7 tha da la-on 7 ). 
pre 7 mi-er. 

Ptolemy (toPe-my). 

Pueblo (pwebdo). 

Raleigh (rawdy). 
ran-che/ro. 

Re-dlv 7 i-va. 

Re-sa'ca de la PaPma. 

Rbaut (re-bo 7 ). 

Ri 7 o Gran 7 de. 

Ro-ber-val 7 . 

Rochambeau (ro-shong-bo 7 ). 
Russia (rush 7 e-a). 

Saint Augustine (sent au-ghs 7 tin). 
Salzburgers (salts 7 burg-ers). 

San Buenaventura (san bwa-na- 
ven-too 7 ra). 

San Juan (hoo 7 an). 

San-lu 7 is 0-bis 7 po. 

San Pas-quaP. 

Sante Fe (san 7 ta-fa). 

Scarborough (skar 7 biir-eh). 
Sclopds. 

Se-ra/pis. 

Ser 7 ra, Ju(hu)nip 7 e-ro. 

Shaftsbury (shafs 7 ber-re). 

Slower/i/ter. 

South-amp 7 ton. 

Staempfle (stern'll). 

Steu'ben. 

Siit'ter. 

Swansey (swon 7 ze). 

Teu-t6n 7 ic. 

Trip 7 o-li (le). 

Trip-51' i-tan§. 

Ve 7 ra Cruz (kroos). 

Yerrazzano (ver-rat-sa/no). 
Versailles (ver-salz 7 ). 
wig 7 wam. 

Wy-o'ming. 



BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 


BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 


Colonial History. 

Ashton, Adventures and Discoveries of Captain John Smith. 
Ballantyne, Young Fur Traders. 

Coffin, Old Times in the Colonies. 

Cooper, Leather Stocking Tales. 

Drake, Around the Hub (Boston). 

Eggleston and Seelye, Famous American Indians. 
Franklin, Autobiography. 

Hale, Stories of Discovery. 

Hawthorne, Grandfather’s Chair. 

Legends of the Province House. 

Helps, Life of Columbus. 

Hemans, Landing of the Pilgrims (poem). 

Higginson, History of American Explorers. 

Holmes, Robinson of Leyden (poem). 

Irving, Life of Columbus. 

Companions of Columbus. 

Knickerbocker History of New York. 

Johnson, The French War. 

Kellogg, Good Old Times. 

Kingston, Notable Voyages, from Columbus to Parry. 
Longfellow, Miles Standish, Evangeline, Hiawatha (poems). 
Lowell, Chippewa Legend (poem). 

Markham, Around the Yule Log. 

King Philip’s War. 

Marryat, Settlers in Canada. 

Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac. 

Discovery of the Great West. 

Frontenac and New France. 

Jesuits in North America. 

Old Regime in Canada. 

Pioneers of France in the New World. 

Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen. 

Scudder, Boston Town. 

Men and Women in America One Hundred Years Ago. 
Towle, Drake, the Sea-King of Devon. 

Magellan. 

Marco Polo. 

Pizarro and His Conquests. 

Raleigh. 



410 


APPENDIX. 


Voyages and Adventures of Vasca da Gama. 

Wallace, The Fair God (Aztecs). 

Whittier, Bridal of Pennacook (poem). 

The Exiles (Quaker persecution). 

The King’s Missive (Quaker persecution). 

Revolutionary History. 

Abbott, Revolutionary Times. 

Bryant, Song of Marion’s Men (poem). 

Seventy-Six (poem). 

Brown, Life of Washington. 

Campbell, Gertrude of Wyoming (poem). 

Coffin, Boys of ’76. 

Building the Nation. 

Story of Liberty. 

Cooper, Lionel Lincoln (Siege of Boston). 

Hawthorne, Twice-Told Tales. 

Hoppus, A Great Treason (Arnold’s). 

Longfellow, Pulaski’s Banner (poem). 

Lossing, Field-Book of the Revolution. 

Scudder, Bodley Books. 

National History. 

Adams, Our Standard Bearer (U. S. Grant). 

Catlin, Life Among the Indians. 

Champlin, Young Folks’ History of the War for the Union. 
Coffin, Boys of ’61. 

Following the Flag (1861-5). 

Custer, My Life on the Plains. 

Dana, Two Years Before the Mast (California). 

Ellis, Daniel Boone (Kentucky). 

David Crockett (Texas). 

Hale, Man Without a Country. 

Philip Nolan’s Friends (Louisiana Purchase). 

Stories of the War (1861-5). 

Hughes, G. T. T. (Gone to Texas). 

Irving, Astoria. 

Johnson, War of 1812. 

Ladd, War with Mexico. 

Leland, Abraham Lincoln. 

Lossing, Field-Book of the War of 1812. 

History of the Civil War. 

Story of the United States Navy. 

Oliver Optic, Army and Navy Stories. 

Parkman, Oregon Trail. 

Penniman, Tanner Boy (U. S. Grant). 


BOOKS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 


411 


Pittengee, Capturing a Locomotive (Civil War). 
Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Slavery). 
Trowbridge, Cudjo’s Cave (Civil War). 

Three Scouts (Sequel to Cudjo’s Cave). 


In General. 

Abbott, Pioneers and Patriots. 

Adams, History of the United States in Rhyme. 
Bonner, Child’s History of the United States. 
Butterworth, America (Young Folks’ Histories). 
Higginson, Young Folks’ History of the United States. 
Nordhoff, Politics for Young Americans. 

Richardson, History of Our Country. 


Teacher’s Reference. 


American Commonwealth Series. 


California, 

Connecticut, 

Kansas, 

Kentucky, 

Maryland, 


Massachusetts, 

Michigan, 

Missouri, 

New York, 
Oregon, 


American Statesmen Series. 


Pennsylvania, 
South Carolina, 
Tennessee, 
Virginia. 


Adams, John, 

Adams, John Q., 
Adams, Samuel, 
Benton, Thomas, 
Calhoun, John C., 
Clay, Henry, 

Gallatin, Albert, 
Hamilton, Alexander, 
Henry, Patrick, 


Jackson, Andrew, 
Jefferson, Thomas, 
Madison, James, 
Marshall, John, 
Monroe, James, 
Randolph, John, 
Van Buren, Martin, 
Webster, Daniel. 


Bancroft, History of the United States (Centennial Edition). 
Blaine, Twenty Years in Congress (1861-1881). 

Bryant, Popular History of the United States (to 1865). 
Frothingham, Rise of the Republic of the United States. 
Lodge, English Colonies in America. 

McMaster, History of the People of the United States. 
Schouler, History of the United States (1789- ). 


412 


APPENDIX. 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 


Adopted in Congress, July 4th, 1776. 


When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve 
the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the 
powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are en¬ 
dowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, 
and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever 
any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people 
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such 
principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to 
effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments long 
established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all 
experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are suffer¬ 
able, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But 
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces 
a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to 
throw off such a government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such 
has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which 
constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present 
King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuxies and usurpations, all having in 
direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, 
let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessai-y for the public 
good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained; and when so sus¬ 
pended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, 
unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature—a 
right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and dis¬ 
tant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them 
into compliance with his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness, 
his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, 
whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers 
of invasions from without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose ob- 




DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 413 


stiucting the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encour¬ 
age their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to laws for 
establishing judiciary powers. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and 
the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to 
harass our people and eat out their substance. 

11. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of 
our legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil 
power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitu¬ 
tion, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legis¬ 
lation: 

14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which 
they should commit on the inhabitants of these states; 

16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

19. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses ; 

20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, estab¬ 
lishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it 
at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
colonies; 

21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, 
fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 

22. For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power 

to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. I 

23. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging 

war against us. j 

24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the 
lives of our people. 

25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the 
works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and 
perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of 1 
a civilized nation. 

26. He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms 
against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
themselves by their hands. 

27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the 
inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare 
is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble 
terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince 
whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned 
them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration 


414 


APPENDIX. 


and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and 
we have conjured them, by the ties of our commou kindred, to disavow these usurpations, 
which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in 
the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of man¬ 
kind—enemies in war; in peace, friends. • 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in general Con¬ 
gress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our 
intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, sol¬ 
emnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, 
and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved, and that, as free and independent states, they have full 
power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other 
acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this 
Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 


The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the fol¬ 
lowing members: 


JOHN HANCOCK. 


New Hampshire. 
Josiah Bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay. 
Samuel Adams, 

John Adams, 

Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island. 
Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

Connecticut. 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

New York. 
William Floyd, 

Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 

Lewis Morris. 


New Jersey. 
Richard Stockton, 

John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 

Abraham Clark. 

Virginia. 
George Wythe, 

Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jun., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

Delaware. 
Cassar Rodney, 

George Read, 

Thomas M’Kean. 

Maryland. 

Samuel Chase, 

William Paca, 

Thomas Stone, 

Charles Carroll, of Car¬ 
rollton. 


Pennsylvania. 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 

George Clymer, 

James Smith, 

George Taylor, 

James Wilson, 

George Ross. 

North Carolina. 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 

John Penn. 

South Carolina. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jun., 
Thomas Lynch, Jun., 
Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 

George Walton. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


415 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


PREAMBLE. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish 
justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the gene¬ 
ral welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 


ARTICLE I. 

LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Section 1. 

1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United 
States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section 2. 

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second 
year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qual¬ 
ifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty- 
five years and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 

3. [Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states 
which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which 
shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound 
to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting 
of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not ex¬ 
ceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled 
to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Con¬ 
necticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary¬ 
land six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.] 

This clause has been superseded, so far as it relates to representation, by section two of the Fourteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority 
thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and 
shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section 3. 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, 
chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years, and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they 




416 


APPENDIX. 


shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the 
first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the 
expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, 
so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resigna¬ 
tion or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the Executive thereof 
may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall 
then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and 
been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of the state for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall 
have no voice unless they shall be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their officers and have a President pro tempore, in the ab¬ 
sence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United 
States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when sitting for that 
purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States 
is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the 
concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from 
office and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the 
United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indict¬ 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. 

Section 4. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives 
shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any 
time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on 
the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day. 

Section 5. 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own 
members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller 
number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance 
of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for dis¬ 
orderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish 
the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy; and the ayes 
and noes of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one fifth 
of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, 
adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two 
houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. 

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to 
be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in 
all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during 
their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning 
from the same; and for any speech or debate, in either house, they shall not be ques¬ 
tioned in any other place. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


417 


2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, he 
appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have 
been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; 
and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either 
house during his continuance in office. 

Section 7. 

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the 
Senate may propose or concur with amendments on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, 
shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he 
approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house 
in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, 
and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall 
agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by 
■which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house it 
shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined 
by ayes and noes; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by 
the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to 
him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, 
by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and the 
House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall 
be presented to the President of the United States; and, before the same shall take effect, 
shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations pre¬ 
scribed in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. 

1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with 
the Indian tribes. 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of 
bankruptcies throughout the United States. 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coins, and fix the standard 
of weights and measures. 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of 
the United States. 

7. To establish post offices and post roads. 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited time's, to 
authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court. 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses 
against the laws of nations. 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning 
captures on land and water. 

12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money for that use shall be 
for a longer term than two years. 

27-H 


418 


APPENDIX. 


13. To provide and maintain a navy. 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the laud and naval forces. 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress 
insurrections, and repel invasions. 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing 
such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
the states, respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not 
exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of 
Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, aud to exercise like 
authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in 
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, aud 
other needful buildings. 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution 
the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government 
of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section 9. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall 
think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by Congress prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may r be imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in 
cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or 
enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 

6. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports 
of one state over those of another;- nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged 
to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations 
made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall be published from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any 
office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of 
any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or 
foreign state. 

Section 10. 

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of 
marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and sil¬ 
ver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on 
imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection 
laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall 
be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

3. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops 
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STA TES. 


419 


or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent 
danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

Section 1. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. 
He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a 
number of Electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which 
the state may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 

3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for two persons, 
of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And 
they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; 
which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Government 
of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Sen¬ 
ate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certifi¬ 
cates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of 
votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Elect¬ 
ors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal 
number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot 
one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest 
on the list the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But, in choosing 
the President, the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having 
one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two 
thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In 
every case after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of 
votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-Presi¬ 
dent.] 

This clause has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution. 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which 
they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time 
of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President, neither 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five 
years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.- 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or 
inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on 
the Vice-President, and the Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be 
removed, or a President shall be elected. (See note at bottom of p. 425.) 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which 
shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States or any of them. 

8. Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
affirmation: “ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of 


420 


APPENDIX. 


President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and 
defend the Constitution of the United States.” 

Section 2. 

1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United 
States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the 
United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the 
United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and, 
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint Embassadors, other pub¬ 
lic Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for and which shall 
be established by law; but the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such in¬ 
ferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the 
heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the 
recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next 
session. 

Section 3. 

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the 
Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary 
and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of 
them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Embassa¬ 
dors and other public Ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. 

1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be 
removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high 
crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

JUDICIAL DEPARTMENTS. 

Section 1. 

1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and 
in such inferior Courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. 
The Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall 
not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this 
Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
under their authority; to all cases affecting Embassadors, other public Ministers and Con¬ 
suls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the 
United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states; between a 
state and citizens of another state ; between citizens of different states; between citizens 
of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states ; and between a state, or 
the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting Embassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in 
which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all 
the other cases before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such 


CONSTITUTION OF TIIE UNITED STATES. 421 


trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but 
when not committed within any state, the trial shall be put at such place or places as the 
Congress may, by law, have directed. 

Section 3. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or 
in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 

2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to 
the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder 
of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the per¬ 
son attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

STATE ACTS. 

Section 1. 

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judi¬ 
cial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe 
the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

Section 2. 

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of 
citizens in the several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee 
from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having juris¬ 
diction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into 
another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 
service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or 
labor may be due. 

Section 3. 

1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new state shall 
be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed 
by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legis¬ 
latures of the states concerned, as well as of Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regula¬ 
tions respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and noth¬ 
ing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
States, or of any particular state. 

Section 4. 

1. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of 
government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and, on application of the 
legislature, or of the Executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against 
domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

AMENDMENTS. 

Section 1. 

1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two 
thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in 
either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in 
three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
Congress; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thou¬ 
sand eight hundred and eight shall, in any manner, affect the first and fourth clauses in 
the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be 
deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate, 


422 


APPENDIX. 


ARTICLE VI. 

PROMISCUOUS PROVISIONS. 

Section 1. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Con¬ 
stitution, shall be as valid against the United States, under this Constitution, as under 
the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursu¬ 
ance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the 
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the Judges in every state shall 
be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary not¬ 
withstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several 
state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and 
of the several states, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

Section 1. 

1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establish¬ 
ment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, 
in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President and Deputy from Virgiuia. 

DELAWARE. 

GEORGE READ, 

GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr., 

JOHN DICKINSON, 

RICHARD BASSETT, 

JACOB BROOM. 

MARYLAND. 

james McHenry, 

DANIEL of St. Th. JENIFER, 
DANIEL CARROLL. 

VIRGINIA. 

JOHN BLAIR, 

JAMES MADISON, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

WILLIAM BLOUNT, 

RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT, 

HUGH WILLIAMSON. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

JOHN RUTLEDGE, 

CHARLES C. PINCKNEY, 

CHARLES PINCKNEY, 

PIERCE BUTLER. 

GEORGIA. 

WILLIAM FEW, 

ABRAHAM BALDWIN. 

WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE 

JOHN LANGDON, 

NICHOLAS GILMAN. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

NATHANIEL GORHAM, 

RUFUS KING. 

CONNECTICUT. 

WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON, 
ROGER SHERMAN. 

NEW YORK. 

ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 

NEW JERSEY. 

WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID BREARLY, 

WILLIAM PATTERSON, 
JONATHAN DAYTON. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
THOMAS MIFFLIN, 

ROBERT MORRIS, 

GEORGE CLYMER, 

THOMAS FITZSIMONS, 

JARED INGERSOLL, 

JAMES WILSON, 
GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


423 


AMENDMENTS. 


ARTICLE I. 

Section 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; 
or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a 
redress of grievances .—[December 15, 1791. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section 1. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the 
right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.— [Id. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the 
consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.— [Id. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section 1. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants 
shall issue but upon reasonable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched and the person or things to be seized.— [Id. 

ARTICLE Y. 

Section 1. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in 
the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war, or pub¬ 
lic danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeop¬ 
ardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against 
himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use without just compensation.— [Id. 

ARTICLE YI. 

Section 1. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall 
have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and 
to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit¬ 
nesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and 
to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.— [Id.. 

ARTICLE VII. 

Section 1. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, tried by jury, 
shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States than according to the 
rules of common law.— [Id. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Section 1. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel 
and unusual punishments inflicted.— [Id. 

ARTICLE IX. 

Section 1. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be con¬ 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people— [Id. 



424 


APPENDIX. 


ARTICLE X. 

Section 1. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor pro¬ 
hibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states, respectively, or to the people. [Id. 

ARTICLE XI. 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
by the, citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.—[ January 
8, 1798. 

ARTICLE XII. 

Section 1. The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, 
and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make dis¬ 
tinct lists of all persons voted for as President, aud of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, r.nd 
transmit, sealed, to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the Pres¬ 
ident of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate aud 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. 
The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such 
a number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person 
have such a majority, then from the persous having the highest numbers, not exceeding 
three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall 
choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes 
shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and 
a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as 
President, as in case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The 
person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; and if no per¬ 
son have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the 
whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a 
choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligi¬ 
ble to that of Vice-President of the United States.—[ Proposed December 12,1803; ratified 
September 25,180A. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

Section 1. Neither slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.— 
[December 18,1865. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the 
jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. 
No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the 
equal protection of the laws. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


425 


Sec. 2. Representatives shall he apportioned among the several states, accoi’ding to 
their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, exclud¬ 
ing Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of 
Electors for President and Vice-Piesident of the United States, Representatives in Con¬ 
gress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the Legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of 
age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in 
rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pi - o- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male 
citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. 

Sec. 3. No pei'son shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or Elector of Pres¬ 
ident and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or militarj', under the United States, or 
under any state, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive 
or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall 
have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfoit to 
the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, i-emove 
such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, in¬ 
cluding debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing 
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States or any 
state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insuri-ection or rebel¬ 
lion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; 
but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the pro¬ 
visions of this article.—[ Declared ratified July 28th, 1868. (U. S. Statutes at Large, 
Vol. 15, pp. 709-11.) 

ARTICLE XV. 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or 
abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account of race, coloi', or previous con¬ 
dition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legisla¬ 
tion.—[ U. S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 15, p. 3h6. 


N 0TE —Agreeably with the powers conferred by Clause 6, Section 1, Article II., of the 
Constitution (see p. 419), Congress in 1886 provided for the succession to the Presidency 
in case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the President or Vice-President 
by directing that the office devolve first upon the Secretary of State, and in case of his 
inability, for any reason, to perform its duties, it should pass, successively, upon similar 
conditions, to the Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Post¬ 
master-General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Interior. If, however, any 
one of these officers should be of foreign birth, the Presidency passes to the next named 
in the list. 



426 


INDEX. 


INDEX. 


(For Reference and Topical Review.) 


(Figures refer to paragraphs.) 


Abolition, 492, 508. 

Academy, United States Military, 
437; naval, 496. 

Acadia, settled, 45: becomes En¬ 
glish possession, 180; inhabit¬ 
ants transported, 201. 

Adams, John, 273, 295; vice-presi¬ 
dent, 361; president, 396; term, 
ch. xix; retirement, 410; death, 
469. 

Adams, John Quincy, elected pres¬ 
ident, 466; term, ch. xxiii; in 
House of Representatives, 509. 

Adams, Samuel, 235. 

Alabama, admitted, 459; Confed¬ 
erate cruiser, 594; claims for 
damage, 679. 

Alaska, 673. 

Albany Convention, 197. 

America, name, 28. 

“American System,” 474. 

Andre, Major John, 320. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 94, 95, 96. 

Angles and Saxons, 3. 

Arkansas, 523. 

Army, American, during war for 
independence, 279; in war of 
1812, 452; Mexican war, 539; in 
civil war, 592; note, p. 336. 

Arnold, Benedict, 267, 320,335,336. 

Arthur, Chester A., 708; elected 
vice-president, 701; term as pres¬ 
ident, ch. xxxiv, 3. 

Ayllon, explorations of, 29. 

Aztecs, civilization of, 22. 

Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia, 137. 

Balboa discovers Pacific ocean, 29. 


Bank, United States, founded by 
Hamilton, 385; contest over, 482. 

Banks, craze over, 502. 

Banks, national, 656. 

Barbary States, 419, 420. 

Battles. War for Independence .— 
Bemis’s Heights, 306; Benning¬ 
ton, 305; Brandywine, 291; Bun¬ 
ker Hill, 258; Camden, 327; 
Charleston, 271, 323; Cowpens, 
332; Eutaw Springs, 334; Free¬ 
man’s Farm, 306; Germantown, 
292; Guilford Court House, 
333; Hobkirk Hill, 334; King’s 
Mountain, 330; Long Island, 
280; Monmouth, 297. 

War of 1812 .—Chippewa Creek, 
445; Erie,442; New Orleans, 448; 
Plattsburg, 445; Queenstown 
Heights, 440; Raisin River, 441; 
Sackett’s Harbor, 441: Thames, 
444. 

War with Mexico .—Buena Vista, 
535; Cerro Gordo, 535; Chapul- 
tepec, 536; Churubusco, 536; 
Contreras, 536; Molino del Rey, 
536; Monterey, 532; Palo Alto, 
532; Resaca de la Palma, 532; 
San Gabriel River, 770; San Pas- 
qual, 770; Vera Cruz, 535. 

War of Secession. —Antietam, 605; 
Atlanta, 640; Ball’s Bluff, 599; 
Bull Run, 597,604; Cedar Mount¬ 
ain, 604; Chancellorsville, 608; 
Chickamauga, 635; Cold Har¬ 
bor, 603; Corinth, 616; Dallas, 
640; Donelson, 614; Fair Oaks, 





INDEX. 


601; Franklin, 643; Frazier’s 
Farm, 603; Fredericksburg, 607; 
Gettysburg, 610; Goldsboro, 650; 
Groveton, 604; Kenesaw Mount¬ 
ain, 640; Lookout Mountain, 637; 
Malvern Hill, 603; Mechanics- 
ville, 603; Mill Spring, 613; Mis¬ 
sionary Ridge, 637; Murfrees¬ 
boro, 620; Pea Ridge, 618; Perry- 
ville, 619; Resaca, 640; Savage’s 
Station, 603; Seven Pines, 601; 
Shiloh, 615; Spottsylvania Court 
House,646; Vicksburg,631; Wil¬ 
derness, 646; Wilson’s Creek, 
611; Winchester, 648. 

Bear Flag Affair, 767. 

Benton, Thomas H., 560. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, life, 387; in 
war of 1812, 431. 

Boston, British troops in, 236; port 
closed. 243; siege, 262; capture, 
264. 

“Boston Massacre,” 237. 

“ Boston Tea Party,” 242. 

Braddock’s campaign, 200. 

Bradford, William, 66. 

Broderick, David C., 786, 787. 

Brown, John, 578, 579. 

Buchanan, James, elected presi¬ 
dent, 568; term, ch. xxx. 

Bunker Hill Monument, 465. 

Burr, Aaron, 409. 

Cabot, John, discovers Cape Bre¬ 
ton Island, 34. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 35. 

Calhoun, John C., early life, 435; 
ideas on states rights, 485. 

California,ch.xxviii,xxxvi,xxxvii. 

Calvert, Cecil, founder of Mary¬ 
land, 114. 

Calvert, George, Baron of Balti¬ 
more, 113. 

Canada, settled, 45; ch. xiii; con¬ 
quered 1760, 207; retained as 
British possession, 210 ; invaded 
1775, 265. See also war of 1812. 


427 

Cartier, discovers St. Lawrence 
River, 33. 

Carver, John, 66. 

Champlain, Samuel de, explorer 
of Canada, 175; 45. 

Charles II., king of England, gov¬ 
ernment of New England, 92; 
in southern colonies, 134; in 
middle colonies, 152. 

Charleston founded, 126; attacked 
1776, 271; captured 1780, 323. 

Cherokees raid in Tennessee 1776, 
311; moved west, 498. 

Chinese immigration, 712, 792. 

Civil Service, spoils system, 480; 
reform, 704, 715. 

Clay, Henry, early life, 434; presi¬ 
dential candidate, 466; final de¬ 
feat, 521. 

Clergymen, 167. 

Cleveland, Grover, 721; elected 
president, 719; term, ch.xxxiv.4. 

Coinage of U. S., 697, 698. 

Columbia, District of, 730. 

Colorado, 688. 

Columbus, Christopher, early life, 
9; first voyage west, ch. ii; later 
voyages, 27; death, 27. 

Commanders, military. War for 
the Interior.— Abercrombie, Brad- 
dock, Bradstreet, Dieskau, 
Forbes, J ohnson, Loudon, Mont¬ 
calm, Putnam, Rogers, Shirley, 
Wolfe. 

War for Independence. —Allen, 
Arnold, Clinton, Cornwallis, 
D’Estaing, De Grasse, Gage, 
Gates, Greene, Herkimer, Howe, 
Knowlton, Lafayette, Lee 
(Charles), Lee (Henry), Lincoln, 
Marion, Montgomery, Morgan, 
Moultrie, Percy, Pickens, Pit¬ 
cairn, Prescott, Putnam, Schuy¬ 
ler, Stark, Sullivan, Sumter, 
Ward, Washington, Wayne, 




428 


INDEX. 


War of 1812. —Brock, Brown, Dear¬ 
born, Harrison, Hall, Hampton, 
Jackson, Proctor, Ross, Scott. 

War with Mexico.— Doniphan, Fre¬ 
mont, Kearny, Taylor, Santa 
Anna, Scott, Wool. 

War of Secession. —Banks, Bean- 
regard, Bragg, Buell, Butler, 
Burnside, Custer, Early, Ewell, 
Fremont, Garfield, Grant, Hal- 
leck, Hood, Hooker, Jackson, 
Johnston (Albert S.), Johnston 
(Joseph E.), Lee, Lyon, McClel¬ 
lan, McDowell, Meade, Morgan, 
Pemberton, Pope, Price, Rose- 
crans, Scott, Sheridan, Sherman, 
Stuart, Thomas, Van Dorn, Zoll- 
icoffer. 

Commanders, naval, Decatur, Far- 
ragut, Foote, Jones (John P.), 
MacDonough, Perry, Sloat, 
Stockton, Winslow. 

Commerce in 1450, 5, 7; of colo¬ 
nies, 165; British regulations, 
95, 216, 217; of United States, 
422, 431, 723. 

Concord skirmish, 250. 

Confederacy, 585; ch. xxxi. 

Confederation, articles of, 277,347. 

Congress, Stamp Act, 1765, 226. 

Congress, Continental, I Session 
1774, 244; II Session 1775, 253. 

Congress of the Confederation, 277. 

Congress under the Constitution, 
363. 

Connecticut, foundation, 75. 

Constitution of United States— 
Convention 1787^354,356; adopt¬ 
ed, 361; amendments, 370, 662, 
669; centennial, 729. 

Cortereal names Labrador, 37. 

Cortez conquers Mexico, 29. 

Courts, United States, 368; Su¬ 
preme court and slavery, 573. 

Dark Ages, 4, 


Debt, United States, 372; assump¬ 
tion of state debts, 373; manner 
of payment, 384; end of civil 
war, 654; refunding, 700. 

Delaware, settlement, 151. 

De Soto discovers the Mississippi, 
30. 

Donner Party, 764. 

Douglas, Stephen A., 557, 575, 576, 
580,582. 

Drake, Sir Francis, visits Califor¬ 
nia, 36. 

Dred Scott case, 573. 

Dutch in New York, 141. 

Education, in New England, 99; 
in southern colonies, 138; in 
middle colonies, 160; general, 
495; chapter xxxv. 

Electoral commission, 693. 

Emancipation proclamation, 628. 

Embargo 1807, 423, 426. 

Endicott, John, 66. 

England, early, 3; sovereigns of, 
41; government, 42. 

Ericsson, John, 623. 

Erie canal, 463. 

Excise, 382. 

Federalists, 388, 404, 405, 438, 451. 

Filibusters, 565. 

Fillmore, Millard, elected vice- 
president, 540; president, ch. 
xxviii. 

Florida discovered, 29; settled, 48; 
becomes British possession 1763, 
210; returned to Spain 1783,210; 
purchased, 456; admitted, 523. 

Franklin, Benjamin, early life, 
158; plan of union, 198; in En¬ 
gland, 244; in Congress, 273,275; 
in France, 278; in constitutional 
convention, 357; death, 377. 

Franciscans, 176; in California, 
748. 

Free Soil Party, 541, 554. 

Fremont, John C., 568, 765, 767, 
769, 770, 771, 




INDEX. 


429 


French and Indian war, ch. xiv. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 547, 549. 

Fulton, Robert, 415, 446. 

Gadsden purchase, 567. 

Garfield, James A., 700; elected 
president, 701; term, ch. xxxiv, 
2; death, 705. 

Genet, French embassador, 390. 

Geneva award. See Alabama 
claims. 

George III., king of England, gov¬ 
ernment, 215; policy toward 
colonies, 231. 

Georgia, settlement, ch. x. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, explora¬ 
tions, 50, 51. 

Gold in California, 775, 778, 780. 

Government, colonial, 162; during 
war for independence, 268, 277; 
executive department, 367; sal¬ 
aries, 371; sub-treasury system, 
506. See also Congress, Recon¬ 
struction. 

Grant, Ulysses S., in civil war, ch. 
xxxi; elected president, 674; 
term, ch. xxxii; travels, 702; 
candidate for third term, 701; 
death, 720. 

Greeley, Horace, 686. 

Greenback Party, 703, 719. 

Greenbacks, 655, 699. 

Gwin, William M., 777, 786. 

Hamilton, Alexander, early life, 
353. 

Hancock, John, 235. 

Harrison, William Henry, 430,441, 
444; president, 511,512; life, 513. 

Hartford convention, 451. 

Harvard College, 100. 

Haye s, Rutherford B., 696; elected 
president, 692; term,ch. xxxiv, 1. 

Henry, Patrick, 223, 224. 

Higginson, Francis, 66, 68. 

Huguenots. See Protestants. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anna, 70, 73. 

Illinois, 459. 


Immigration, early, to U. S., 392; 
later, 490. See also Chinese Im¬ 
migration. 

Independence, war for, ch. xvi; 
declaration, 274; confirmed by 
France and Spain, 295. 

Indiana, 459. 

Indians, named by Columbus, 14; 
life, 18; character, 19; relics, 20; 
United States Indian policy, 
380; outbreak in Indiana, 430; 
in Florida, 456, 498; in Illinois, 
498; in Oregon and Montana, 
690; in Idaho and Arizona, 724. 
See also names of tribes. 

Indies, European commerce with, 
7; a sea road to, 8. 

Internal improvements, 462,474. 

Inventions, 414, 493, 566, 727. See 
also Steamboat, Telegraph, etc., 
and names of inventors. 

Iowa, 523. 

Iroquois, or Five Nations, 181; 
raid Wyoming valley 1778, 312; 
punished, 314. 

Jackson, Andrew, defends New 
Orleans,448; subdues Seminoles, 
456; presidential candidate, 466, 
477; term, ch. xxiv. 

Jamestown, begun, 103; burned, 
137. 

Jay, John, 360, 369, 391. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 275, 389, 400, 
407; elected president, 409; term, 
ch. xx; death, 469. 

Jesuits, in Canada, 176; in Mexi¬ 
co, 748. 

Johnson, Andrew, elected vice- 
president, 657; president, ch. 
xxxii. 

Kansas, slavery in, ch. xxix; Le- 
compton constitution, 575; ad¬ 
mitted, 577. 

Kentucky admitted a state, 378. 

King, James, 783. 

Ku Klux Klan, 684. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 289, 465. 





430 


INDEX ; 


Larkin, Thomas 0., 763. 

La Salle, Cavalier de, descends 
the Mississippi, 178. 

Lewis and Clarke expedition, 418. 
Lexington skirmish, 249. 

Liberia, 461. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 576; elected 
president, 582, 587; term, ch. 
xxxi; assassination, 658. 
Literature, growth of, 497. 

Locke, John, framer of the consti¬ 
tution for the Carolinas, 122. 
Louisiana, French possession, 
178; early growth, 182; divided 
1763, 210; purchased, 417; ex¬ 
plored, 418; admitted, 459. 
Madison, James, 352; elected pres¬ 
ident, 426; term, ch. xxi. 
Magellan crosses the Pacific, 29. 
Maine, 460. 

Maryland, settlement, ch. ix. 
Massachusetts, settlement, ch. vi; 
under Charles II., 93; under 
James II., 94. 

Mexico wins independence, 464; 
war w T itli,ch. xxvii; Maximilian, 
672; government in California, 

758. 

Michigan, 523. 

Minnesota, 577. 

Missions, 752, 753; secularization, 

759. 


Mississippi, 459. 

Missouri, contest over admission, 
460; admitted, 460. 

Missouri Compromise, 460, 559. 

Monitor, war vessel, 623. 

Monroe, James, early life, 455; 
elected president, 453; term, ch. 
xxii. 

Monroe Doctrine, 464. 

Mormons, 510, 711. 

Mound-builders, reliQg of, 2l! 

Narvaez attempts 
Florida, 29. 

Navigation Acts, passed, 91; evad¬ 
ed, 216; enforcement com¬ 
menced, 217. 





Navy in war for independence, 
269, 316; organized under Ad¬ 
ams, 404; employed, 419; in war 
of 1812, 449; in Pacific in 1846, 
768; in civil war, 621. 

Nebraska, 668. 

Negro suffrage, 667. 

Nevada, 656. 

New England, land, 83; towns, 84; 
counties and states, 85; confed¬ 
eracy, 86. 

Newfoundland, visited by French 
fishermen, 32. 

New Hampshire, foundation, 80. 

New Jersey, settlement, 143, 144. 

New Mexico explored, 31; settle¬ 
ment at Santa Fe, 48; comes un¬ 
der power of United States, 537. 

Newspapers, 220, 497. 

New York, settlement, 141,142. 

New York city founded, 141; cap¬ 
tured by British 1776, 281. 

North Carolina, settlement, ch. x. 

Northmen visit America, 23. 

Northwest Territory, 350. 

Nullification, 407, 485. 

Oglethorpe, James, founder of 
Georgia, 129. 

Ohio, 459. 

Ohio Company, 189. 

Omnibus Bill, 547. 

Oregon, disputed ownership, 518; 
state admitted, 577. 

Otis, James, 218. 

Panama Congress, 470. 

Parliament, origin, 3; composi¬ 
tion, 42. 

Parties, Political, growth of, 388, 
475, 487, 554, 561. 

Pennsylvania, settlement, ch. xi. 

Penn, William, founder of Penn¬ 
sylvania, 145; treaty with In¬ 
dians, 149. 

Philadelphia, founded, 147, 148; 
captured 1777, 291; abandoned, 
296. 




INDEX. 


431 


Pierce, Franklin, elected presi¬ 
dent, 553; term, ch. xxix. 

Pirates subdued, 154. 

Pitt, William (Earl of Chatham), 
prime minister, 204; on Ameri¬ 
can war, 307; death, 309. 

Pizarro conquers Peru, 29. 

Plymouth, settlement, 62. 

Pocahontas, 108. 

Polo, Marco, 5; wonders related 
by, 6. 

Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, 
29. 

Pontiac, chief of Ottawas, 209. 

Prohibition, 552, 719. 

Protestants, French, settle in 
South Carolina, 46; destroyed 
by Spaniards, 47. 

Protestantism, origin, 39. 

Pueblos, 754. 

Puritans, origin of, 40; colonize 
Massachusetts, 59 et seq. 

Quakers, in Massachusetts, 97; in 
Pennsylvania, 145; doctrines, 
146; in war for independence, 
286. 

Quebec, founded, 45; captured 
1759,206; assaulted 1775, 267. 

Railroads, beginning of, 494; 
transcontinental, 681; in Cali¬ 
fornia, 794. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, first colony, 
52; second colony, 53. 

Reconstruction Acts, 666. 

Republicans, 561. 

Republicans —Democratic, 389, 
406. 

Revolution. See War for Inde¬ 
pendence, ch. xvi. 

Rhode Island, foundation, ch. vii. 

Sacramento, squatter riot, 785. 

St. Lawrence, gulf of, discovered, 
32; river discovered, 33; ex¬ 
plored, 44. 

Salem witchcraft, 98. 


San Diego, 749. 

San Domingo, purposed annexa¬ 
tion, 680. 

San Francisco, bay, 751. 

San Francisco, city, 773, 781. 

Seminoles, 456. 

Serra, Father Junipero, 750. 

Shays’ Rebellion in Massachu¬ 
setts, 355. 

Silver coinage, 697. 

Slavery in colonies, 164; growth 
of, 379; in politics, 457, 458; 
ended, 628. 

Smith, John, hero of Jamestown, 
104. 

Sons of Liberty, 221, 225. 

South Carolina, settlement, 126, 
127; resist the tariff, 484, 486. 

Stamp Act passed, 219; resisted, 
220; repealed, 229. 

Standish, Miles, 64. 

State rights, 406, 476. 

Steamboat, 415, 416. 

Strikes, 725. 

Sutter, John A., 762. 

Tariff, First, law for, 364; for rev¬ 
enue, 365; for protection, 366, 
471; sectional opposition, 472; 
compromise, 486: later history, 
713, 714. 

Taylor, Zachary, General, 529; 
elected president, 540; life, 543. 

Telegraph, 524. 

Temperance, reform, 491. See 
also Prohibition. 

Tennessee, 459. 

Territories, the Northwest, 350; 
general provision for, 370. 

Texas, annexation, 517, 522. 

Ticonderoga, 202, 256. 

Tobacco in Virginia, 109. 

Tories, or Loyalists, 221. 

Town government, 84. 

Townshend taxes, passed, 232; re¬ 
pealed, except on tea, 538. 




:32 


INDEX. 


Treaties, of Paris (1763), 210; of 
Paris (1783), 340; Jay’s, 391; of 
Ghent, 450; Webster-Ashbur¬ 
ton, 516; on Oregon boundary, 
528; of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 538; 
of Washington, 677; with China, 
712. 

Trent affair, 595. 

Tyler, John, vice-president, 511; 
president, ch. xxvi; life, 515. 
alley Forge, winter quarters 
1777-8, 293. 

Van Buren, Martin, vice-presi¬ 
dent, 483; president, 489; ch. 
xxv; life, 500. 

Vermont, settlers, 255; admitted 
a state, 378. 

errazzano, explorations of, 33. 
v espucci, Amerigo, gives name to 
America, 28. 

Lgilance committee, 782,783,792. 

: Irginia, settlement, ch. ix. 
alpole, Sir Robert, ministry of, 
101,156. 

ars, Pequod, 77; King Philip’s, 
89; Bacon’s Rebellion, 137; be¬ 
tween French and English col¬ 
onists, 180; between France and 
England for America, ch. xiv; 
for independence, ch. xvi; of 
1812, ch. xxi; with Mexico, ch. 


xxvii; of Secession, ch. xxxi. 
See also Indian. 

Washington, George, early life, 
191; fights the French, 194; com¬ 
mander of American army, 256; 
retreat across New Jersey, 284; 
recovers New Jersey, 287; plot 
against, 294; elected president, 
361; inaugurated, 362; methods 
in office, 375; retirement, 395; 
death, 408. 

Washington, capital of United 
States, 374; sacked 1814, 447. 

Webster, Daniel, 465, 473; debate 
with Hay lie, 488; secretary of 
state, 516. 

West Virginia, 656. 

Whigs, or Patriots, 221 

Whigs, a political party, 487, 514. 

Whitney, Eli, 399. 

Whisky insurrection, 383. 

Williams, Roger, 70, 72. 

Wilmot Proviso, 534. 

Wisconsin, 523. 

Wolfe, James, captures Quebec, 
206. 

Workingman’s Party, 792, 793. 

Writs of assistance, 217. 

Yorktown, siege (1781), 338; cap¬ 
ture, 339; siege (1861), 600; cen¬ 
tennial, 710. 























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